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COMPLETE 


Geography 


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VV.        .V.        .V.        .V-        .'*■        .v.        .'»>•        .  »V        .•»"•.        .V.        .V.        ."X:        .'♦""•        •***•        •"♦•        •»•        •♦  •»•        •'•»•        •▼• 


NDIANAPOLIS,     IND.: 


INDIANA  SCHOOL   BOOK  CO. 


o 


GIFT  OF 
Dr.   H.I.    Prolstley 


/ 


Indiana  Educational  Series. 


THE 


Complete  Geography 


MATHEMATICAL, 


PHYSICAL, 


POLITICAL, 


■nCHw— — I  ^ — .w — ^ 


INDIANAPOLIS,  IND.: 
IITDIANA   SCHOOL  BOOK   CO. 

1889. 


FDH'^ATioM  nETPT. 


PREFACE. 


In  presenting  the  Advanced  Geography  to  the  public  a  few  words  in  regard  to  its  general  plan  and  scope  may  not 
be  out  of  place.  The  book  may  be  divided  into  three  parts:  the  first  treating  of  Mathematical  Geography,  the 
second,  of  Physical,  the  third,  of  Political. 

A  full  outline  of  mathematical  geography  is  given.  Definitions  and  conclusions  are  based  upon  what  the  pupil  is 
required  to  see  and  do,  and  it  is  believed  that  all  who  are  willing  to  work  and  think  may  comprehend  every  point  pre- 
sented in  the  course.    The  diagrams  are  numerous  and  excellent. 

In  the  department  of  physical  geography,  the  land,  the  water,  and  the  air  are  considered  in  the  order  named.  The 
climate  of  the  several  continents  as  determined  by  position,  and  modified  by  elevation,  slope,  mountain  ranges,  proximity 
to  the  sea,  ocean  currents,  prevailing  winds,  and  rainfall,  then  receives  careful  attention.  At  this  point  the  pupil  is  pre- 
pared to  study  Life  on  the  Globe;  and  the  distribution  of  plants  and  animals  in  the  several  climatic  zones,  the  plant  and 
animal  life  of  the  continents  are  fully  presented.  The  earth  has  now  put  on  its  mantle  of  plants,  animated  creatures  are 
everywhere,  and  it  is  ready  for  man,  the  lord  of  all,  who  appears  on  the  scene. 

"Man  in  the  Different  Zones"  is  made  a  subject  of  study,  and  the  zone  most  favorable  to  civilization  is  indicated. 
Human  industries  as  dependent  on  physical  geography  are  considered  and  the  pupil  is  led  to  see  why  some  peoples  are 
nomadic,  and  why  others  have  fixed  habitations.  He  goes  over  the  earth,  pointing  out  the  regions  best  suited  to  agri- 
culture, to  mining,  to  manufacturing,  to  commerce,  and  so  on. 

In  this  way  physical  geography  is  made  the  foundation  of  political  geography;  the  pupil's  horizon  is  broadened  and 
he  is  prepared  to  study  the  different  countries,  peoples  and  industries  of  the  world  with  great  interest  and  profit. 

The  author  has  sought  to  hold  the  pupil  in  the  attitude  of  a  constant  observer,  to  throw  him  upon  his  own  resources, 
to  make  him  self  reliant.  He  has  given  him  many  test  exercises,  many  queries,  in  the  belief  that  they  will  stimulate 
thought,  and  lead  to  a  better  understanding  of  the  subject. 

Great  pains  have  been  taken  in  the  preparation  of  the  maps  and  charts,  and  they  will  be  found  unusually  clear  and 
attractive.  The  physical  maps  are  a  special  feature  of  this  work.  The  diagrams  and  pictorial  illustrations  are  by  skilled 
artists.    The  mechanical  appearance  of  the  work  will  prove  a  source  of  pleasure  to  every  pupil  and  teacher. 

SANFORD  NILES. 


COPYRIGHT,    1889. 
C.  W.  WILLETT. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

PAGE. 

The  Earth  as  a  Planet, 1 

The  Solar  System 2 

The  Sphere, 2 

The  Circle, 3 

Form  and  Size  of  the  Earth, 3 

Circles  of  the  Earth, 4 

Latitude  and  Longitude, 4 

Representations  of  the  Earth — Globes,  Maps,  5 
Motions  of  the  Earth — Day  and  Night,  Chaage 

of  Seasons, 5 

Zones, 7 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

Divisions  of  Land, 8 

Divisions  of  Water, 8 

Map  Sketching, 9 

Globe  and  Map  Studies, 10 

Climate, 12 

Forms  of  Land, 12 

Forms  of  Water, 14 

The  Atmosphere, 14 

NoETH  America, 15 

Map  Studies, 15 

Description 17 

Tables  —  Chief  Mountains,  Great  Lakes,  and 

Principal  River  Systems  of  North  America,  19 

South  Ameeica, 21 

Map  Studies, 21 

Description, 21 

Europe, 23 

Description, 23 

Map  Studies, 25 

Asia, 26 

Map  Studies, 26 

Description, 26 

Afeica, 29 

Description, 29 

Map  Studies,       31 

Islands, 32 

Classes  of  Islands, 32 

Australia, 32 

Table — Comparative  Heights  of  the  Principal 

Mountains  of  the  World, 32 

The  Sea— Tides,  Currents, 33 

The  Atmosphere — Winds,  Rainfall,   ...  36 

Climatic  Zones, 43 

Life  on  the  Globe, 43 

Distribution  of  Plants 43 

Range  of  Plants  Useful  to  Man,  ....  46 

North  America  (Plant  Life), 47 

South  America  (Plant  Life), 48 

Europe  (Plant  Life), 50 

Asia  (Plant  Life), 50 

Africa  (Plant  Life), 51 

Australia  (Plant  Life), 52 

The  Sea  (Plant  Life), 52 

Distribution  of  Animals, 53 

North  America  (Animal  Life),       ....  54 

South  America  (Animal  Life),       ....  56 

Europe  (Animal  Life), 57 

Asia  (Animal  Life), 58 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.— Cont'd. 

PAGE. 

Africa  (Animal  Life), 58 

Australia  (Animal  Life), 59 

The  Sea  (Animal  Life) 59 

Mankind  —  Races  —  Man  in  the  Different 

Zones.  Geographical  Distribution  of  Labor,  61 

Test  Questions  and  Exercises,  ....  63 

POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

States  of  Society, 64 

Giovemment, 64 

Religion, 64 

NoETH  America, 64 

Map  Studies,       64 

Description, 66 

United  States, 66 

Description, 66 

Map  Studies,        68 

New  England  States, 70 

Map  Studies,       70 

Description, 70 

The  Middle  Atlantic  States,     ....    72 

Map  Studies, 72 

Description, 72 

The  Southeen  States 76 

Map  Studies  (Eastern  Division),  ....     76 

Description, 76 

Map  Studies  (Western  Division),       ...     78 

The  Centeal  States 81 

Description, 81 

Map  Studies  (Eastern  Division),   ....     83 

Map  Studies  (Western  Division),       ...     84 

The  Pacific  States  and  Teeeitoeies,     .    87 

Description, 87 

Map  Studies,       89 

Table  — Area  and  Population  of  the  States  and 
Territories — Questions  and  Exercises,      .     91 

Dominion  of  Canada, 94 

Description, 94 

Danish  Ameeica, 96 

Mexico, 96 

Description, 96 

Central  America 99 

The  West  Indies 99 

South  America, 100 

Map  Studies,       100 

Description, 102 

Europe,    . 105 

Description, 105 

British  Isles, 105 

Map  Studies  (Europe), 107 

Map  Studies  (British  Isles), 109 

Norway  and  Sweden, Ill 

France, Ill 

Belgium, Ill 

Map  Studies  (Central  Europe), Ill 

Denmark, 112 

German  Empire, 112 

Austrian  Empire, 112 

Portugal, 113 

Spain, 113 

Italy, 114 

III 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY.— Cont'd. 

PAGE. 

Greece, 115 

Turkey, 115 

Russian  Empire, 115 

Asia,    .    .    .    .^ 117 

Description, 117 

Map  Studies,       117 

Afeica, 122 

Map  Studies 122 

Description, 122 

Oceania, 127 

Map  Studies,       127 

Description, 127 

Test  Questions  and  Exeecises 130 

Miscellaneous  Tables — Railways  Open  in 
the  Principal  Countries  of  the  World  — 

*     Length  of  Principal  Rivers  and  Area  of 

River  Basins, 130 

Area  and  Population  of  the  Principal  Coun- 
tries of  the  Worid, 131 

Population  of  the  Chief  Cities  of  the  World,  131 
Population  of  the  Chief  Cities  of  the  United 
States, 1.32 

Peonouncing  Vocabulary, 133 

MAPS. 
Sketch  of  Great  Lakes  of  North  America,     .    iv 

Western  Hemisphere, 10 

Eastern  Hemisphere, 11 

Physical  Map  of  North  America,  ....  16 
Physical  Map  of  South  America,  ....  20 
Physical  Map  of  Europe,     .......     24 

Physical  Map  of  Asia, 27 

Physical  Map  of  Africa,       ....'...     30 

Chart  of  Ocean  Currents 34 

Wind  Chart 37 

Rain  Chart 40 

Chart  of  Isotherms  and  Climatic  Zones,    .     .     42 
World  Chart  Showing  the  Distribution  of  For- 
est Trees  and  Plants, 44 

Political  Map  of  North  America, 65 

Map  of  the  United  States 68 

Map  of  the  New  England  States, 71 

Map  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  ....  73 
Map  of  the  Southern  States  (Eastern  Division),  77 
Map  of  the  Southern  States  (Western  Division) ,  79 
Map  of  the  Central  States  (Eastern  Division),  82 
Map  of  the  Central  States  (Western  Division),     85 

Map  of  the  Pacific  States, 88 

Industrial  and  Commercial  Map  of  the  United 

States, 92 

Map  of  Canada, 95 

Map  of  Central  America,  Mexico  and  the  West 

Indies, 97 

Map  of  South  America, 101 

Map  of  Europe, 106 

Map  of  the  British  Isles, 108 

Map  of  Central  Europe, 110 

Map  of  Asia 116 

Map  of  Africa, 123 

Map  of  Oceania 126 

Commercial  Chart  of  the  World, 129 


584717 


HINTS   TO  THE   TEACHER. 


Mathematical  Geography. — ^In  preparing  his  lessons  in  mathematical  geog- 
raphy the  pupil  should  have  a  ball,  a  globe,  or  diagram  before  him.  The 
questions  and  exercises  are  designed  to  lead  him  to  obserre  closely,  and  the 
definitions  are  supposed  to  be  based  on  his  observations.  Nearly  every  defini- 
tion is  followed  by  questions  or  exercises  to  test  the  pupil's  understanding  of 
the  point  under  consideration.  The  teacher  is  advised  to  hold  to  this  general 
plan  of  work,  adding  queries,  and  other  tests  as  he  sees  that  they  are  needed. 
Some  of  the  work  of  preparation  for  the  recitation  may  be  done  at  home,  where 
the  evening  lamp  may  serve  as  the  sun,  the  play  ball  may  represent  the  earth, 
a  needle  its  axis,  a  thread  about  the  ball  the  equator,  or  a  meridian  circle,  etc. 
At  the  recitation  the  several  steps  of  the  preparation  may  be  repeated,  at  the 
discretion  of  the  teacher. 

Questions  Following  Lessons. — The  Author  is  of  the  opinion  that  the 
furnishing  of  questions  on  the  several  lessons,  to  be  answered  in  the  words  of  the 
text-hook,  is  a  pernicious  feature  often  resulting  in  mere  rote  learning  and  per- 
functory teaching.  This  plan  may  cultivate  verbal  memory,  but  it  leaves  the 
imagination  undeveloped;  and  does  not  train  the  pupil  to  observe,  to  think,  to 
describe. 

A  Better  Way. — Let  us  suppose  that  the  lesson  relates  to  the  Pacific  High- 
lands, page  17.  As  the  pupil  reads  the  text,  inspects  the  map,  examines  the  pic- 
torial illustrations,  he  should  try  to  see  the  vast  plateau  stretching  from  the 
Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  His  imagination  should  picture  the 
mountain  ranges,  with  numberless  peaks;  the  intervening  plateaus  and  valleys; 
the  wild  crags;  the  caiions  with  rushing  streams;  the  hare,  wind-swept  hills. 
Or,  suppose  the  task  to  be  "Vegetation  of  Africa,"  page  71.  Studying  the  lesson 
for  the  ideas,  without  a  thought  of  memorizing  the  words,  the  pupil  will  be  able 
to  see  the  date  palm  growing  on  the  borders  of  the  waste  of  sand  and  rock,  or 
rising  here  and  there  in  the  solitudes  of  the  Sahara;  he  will  see  these  trees  with 
their  branchless  trunks,  their  fronds  from  30  to  60  feet  in  the  air,  with  the  dates 
beneath.  The  swarthy  sons  of  the  desert  will  appear  before  him  eating  the  dates 
ripened  under  the  rainless  skies. 

The  pupil  who  has  used  his  imagination,  and  has  obtained  these  clear  men- 
tal pictures,  has  studied  his  lesson  to  some  purpose,  though  he  may  not  have  mem^ 
orized  a  word  of  the  text.     He  has  used  the  book  as  a  means  of  obtaining  ideas,  i^' 

The  Recitation. — At  the  recitation  the  pupil  recalls  the  mental  pictures  — 
not  the  words — and  the  mountains,  the  peaks,  the  wild  crags;  or  the  palm,  the 
dat«s  and  the  sons  of  the  desert  are  there  on  the  mind-screen,  a  photograph, 
which  he  describes  in  the  best  language  he  can  command.  This  is  his  recita 
tion,  and  it  is  worth  more  to  him  than  any  amount  of  mere  i)arrot  work. 

Map  Studies. —  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  give  correct  ideas  of  a  map. 
To  this  end  the  exercises  on  pages  5  and  10  apply  alike  to  the  globe  and  to  the 
maps.  Pupils  are  required  to  trace  the  equator,  the  tropics,  the  polar  circles, 
and  meridian  circles;  to  find  opposite  points,  countries,  and  cities;  and  to  take 
imaginary  journeys  on  both.  Throughout  the  book  the  map  studies  are  de- 
signed to  lead  the  student  to  observe,  to  compare,  to  judge.    A  map  may  be 


made  to  mean  a  great  deal,  or  very  little.  The  position  of  a  country  on  the 
map  should  give  an  idea  of  its  climate;  the  indentations  of  its  coasts  are  a  key 
to  its  possible  commerce;  its  mountaira  are  condensers  of  moisture,  water- 
partings,  pasture  or  forest  lands,  storehouses  of  minerals;  its  rivers  are  drains, 
fertilizers,  arteries  of  trade;  great  cities  suggest  commerce  by  rail,  river,  lake, 
or  sea.     These  larger  views  should  be  kept  before  the  mind  of  the  learner. 

Order  of  Map  Studies. — Though  the  printer  has  found  it  necessary,  in  a 
few  instances,  to  change  the  order,  "Map  Studies ' '  should  precede  the  study  of 
the  descriptive  matter.  This  remark  applies  to  the  physical  and  to  all  the  politi- 
cal maps.  The  chart  of  ocean  currents,  wind,  rain,  etc.,  should  be  studied  at 
the  points  indicated  by  notes  found  on  the  several  pages. 

Reading  the  Map. — On  page  15  is  given  a  method  of  reading  a  map.  The 
pupil  should  locate  and  describe  the  states  and  countries  of  the  world  in  a 
similar  manner.  The  following  order  may  prove  helpful  as  a  guide  to  begin- 
ners: 1.  Position.  2.  Comparative  size.  3.  Boundaries.  4.  Character  of  coast. 
5.  Mountains;  their  location  and  direction.  6.  Lakes;  where  situated.  7.  Prin- 
cipal rivers;  where  they  rise;  in  what  direction  they  flow;  into  what  bodies  of 
water.     8.  Chief  cities;  where  situated. 

Tlie  pupil  should  read  the  map  to  himself,  at  his  seat,  taking  the  points 
in  order,  as  above.  When  he  comes  to  the  recitation  he  may  rea<l  aloud  to  his 
teacher,  using  his  own  language.  If  the  map  is  that  of  New  England,  and  he 
sees  that  Maine,  for  instance,  is  the  largest  state  of  the  group;  that  its  coast  is 
very  irregular;  that  its  surface  is  dotted  with  lakes,  etc.,  he  will  state  these 
facts.  When  the  lesson  is  reviewed,  he  should  recite  from  a  map  in  the  mind, 
or,  better  still,  from  a  picture  of  the  country  painted  by  the  imagination. 


SKETCH  OF  GREAT  LAKES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


Map  Sketching. — Directions  for  map  sketching  may  be  found  on  page  9. 
In  this  connection  it  may  be  said  that  some  excellent  teachers  prefer  to  sketch 
the  mountains  first;  then  the  streams  that  flow  down  their  slopes,  and  so  on. 
This  method  has  its  advantages,  and  is  worthy  of  trial.  It  is  hoped  that  pupils 
will  be  required  to  use  the  pencil  and  the  crayon  at  every  step;  that  the  great 
value  of  map  sketching  in  reviews  will  not  be  overlooked. 


THE 


COMPLETE  GEOGEAPHY. 


/.' 


■f'^ 


i'  J 


.H 


V 


KABTtI,  MOON,  AKU  STAKS  IN   SfACE. 


MATHEMATICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  PLANET. 

The  Earth,  mau's  dwelling  place,  like  the  sun  and  moon, 
is  a  ball  or  globe  hanging  in  space.  Could  we  leave  it  and 
look  back  upon  it  from  a  distance  of  a  half-million  miles  it 
would  appear  as  a  large,  fair  moon  with  twinkling  stars  in 
the  heavens  about  it.  Its  surface  would  shine  like  that  of 
the  moon,  and  light,  irregular  spots  would  show  the  position 
of  the  great  bodies  of  land,  while  darker  portions  would  in- 
dicate the  place  and  form  of  the  oceans. 

If  we  could  go  as  far  off  as  the  sun  the  earth  would  be 
seen  as  a  bright  star;  while  from  one  of  the  nearest  stars 
that  twinkle  in  our  sky  it  would  be  lost  to  sight. 

Fixed  Stars.— Most  stars  shine  by  their  own  light.     They 


are  supposed  to  be  suns,  giving  light  and  heat  to  worlds 
unseen  by  man.  As  they  do  not  change  their  position  with 
reference  to  each  other,  the  ancients,  who  noticed  this  fact, 
called  them  "fixed  stars."  They  may  be  known  by  their 
silvery,  twinkling  light- 
Light  comes  from  the  sun  to  ns  in  about  eight  minutes ;  )nu  the  nearest 
fixed  star  is  so  remote  that  its  light  is  over  three  years  in  reaching  the  earth. 

Planets. — Ages  ago,  men  noticed  that  a  few  stars  appeared 
to  move  about  in  the  heavens.  These  they  named  planets,  or 
"wanderers."  Our  earth  belongs  to  this  class  of  stars.  It 
does  not  shine  by  its  own  light,  but  receives  its  light  from 
the  sun  round  which  it  makes  a  journey  every  year.  Other 
planets  move  or  revolve  round  the  sun,  each  in  a  path,  or 
orbit,  of  its  own,  and  no  two  make  the  journey  in  the  same 
time. 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM— THE  SPHEEB. 


^iiB'  Scdar  Syfeterh^ — ^In  the  diagram  we  have  a  representa- 
tion of  what  is  called  the  Solar  System.  In  the  center  is  the 
sun,  sending  its  beams  to  all  the  planets.  It  is  larger  than 
aU  together  and  more  than  1,300,000  times  as  large  as  the 


JUPITER 


Neptuhi 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


earth,  and  so  far  away  that  it  would  take  a  fast  train  of  cars 
360  years  to  run  an  equal  distance.  Several  of  the  planets 
are  much  larger  than  the  earth.  Neptune  and  Uranus  are  so 
distant  that  they  can  be  seen  only  through  the  telescope.  It 
takes  Neptune  more  than  164  of  our  years  to  make  one  journey 
round  the  sun. 

Moons. — The  Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and 
Neptune  are  attended  by  moons,  or  satellites,  that  revolve 
round  them,  and  accompany  them  on  their  way  round  the 
Bun.  All  these  moons  receive  their  light  from  the  sun  and 
reflect   it   upon   the   greater  worlds   they  attend.      Jupiter, 


the  largest  of  all  the  planets,  has  four  moons, 
and  Uranus  the  same  number.  Saturn  has 
eight  moons  and  a  broad  ring  that  consists  of 
three  parts.  These  rings  encircle  the  planet 
and  are  believed  to  consist  of  a  multitude  of 
small  stars  so  close  together  that  they  seem  to 
form  a  continuous  belt. 

Asteroids  and  Comets. — Between  Mars  and 
Jupiter  are  245,  or  more,  small  planets  called 
asteroids.  They  revolve  round  the  sun  the 
same  as  the  larger  planets.  Besides  the  planets 
and  their  moons,  there  are  strange  bodies  called 
comets  which  are  not  solid  like  planets,  but  are  more  like  flame 
or  gas.  One  point  of  the  orbit  of  a  comet  is  near  the  sun  and 
the  opposite  point  is  very  far  off. 

The  sun  and  all  these  revolving  bodies  form  our  Solar 
System.  Beyond  our  solar  system  are  the  fixed  stars.  The 
Milky  Way  contains  myriads  of  such  stars. 

The  following  table  gives  various  facts  relative  to  the 
planets: — 


NEPTUNE 


URANUS 


COMPARATI\'E  SIZES 
OF  THE  TLAKETS. 


Planets. 

Diameter  In       Distance  from  the 
miles.                 Sun  in  miles. 

Length  of  Year 
in  days. 

No.  of 
Moons. 

3,005 

7,693 

7,913 

4,229 

86,370 

70,800 

31,800 

34,650 

35.860,000 

67;  000, 000 

92,800,000 

141,600,000 

482,000,000 

885,000,000 

1,777,000,000 

2,787,000,000 

88 

225 

365 

687 

4,333 

10,759 

30,687 

60,186 

Earth 

1 

Mars 

2 

Jupiter 

4 

Saturn 

8 

XTranus 

4 

Neptune 

1 

Queries. — How  many  stars  can  we  find  that  do  not  twinkle?  How  many 
that  seem  to  move  about  other  stars?  In  what  direction  is  Venus  when 
it  is  our  evening  star?  "When  it  is  our  morning  star?  How  may  the  North 
Star  he  found?  Do  all  stars  appear  to  rise  and  set?  Does  the  Great  Dipper 
appear -to  revolve?  Are  there  stars  above  us  during  the  day-time?  Can  we 
see  the  same  stars  every  clear  night  during  the  year?  Do  we  see  the  new 
moon  in  the  east  or  in  the  west?  At  the  rate  of  500  miles  a  day,  how  long 
would  it  take  a  train  to  run  a  distance  equal  to  the  diameter  of  Jupiter? 
How  long  does  it  take  light  to  reach  the  earth  from  Neptune? 

Note. — In  the  exercises  that  follow,  the  globe  or  a  ball  should  be  used  by  the  pupil  at 
every  step.  One  or  the  other  should  be  before  him  while  preparing  his  lesson  and  when  re- 
citing. As  a  fair,  mapped  globe  may  be  bought  for  51.00,  and  a  slated  globe  for  $1.50,  the  lack 
of  one  should  not  stand  in  the  way  of  proper  instruction.  For  some  of  the  exercises,  a  com- 
mon ball  is  better  than  a  globe.    See  "  Hints  to  Teachers,"  in  the  preface. 


EXERCISES  AND  DEFINITIONS. 


THE  SPHERE. 

Select  a  number  of  points  on  the  surface 
of  a  globe  or  a  ball,  and  think  of  their  dis- 
tance from  the  center.  State  whether  the 
points  selected  are  equally  distant  from  the 
center.  State  whether  all  points  in  the  sur- 
face are  equally  distant  from  the  center.  A 
lx)dy  of  this  kind  is  called  a  sphere.  Define 
a  sphere  by  telling  what  you  have  observed. 

A  sphere  is  a  body  every  point 

of  whose  surface   is  equally  distant 

from  a  point  within  called  the  center. 

Why  is  a  marble  a  sphere?    Prove  that  an  egg  is  not  a  sphere. 

Note.— The  thorough,  conscientious  teacher  will  not  confine  himself  to  the  tests  and  queries 
given  in  the  book.  Such  exercises  load  the  pupil  to  observe  closely,  and  they  plant  his  feet  on 
solid  ground.  Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  carry  queries  home,  to  be  discussed  at  the  fireside 
by  young  and  old.     There  is  no  better  way  of  increasing  interest  in  the  study  of  geography. 


^^oOJvirE^^ 


Diameter. — One  of  the  lines  drawn  through 
this  sphere  is  marked  diameter.  State  whether 
this  line  is  straight  or  crooked,  through  what 
point  it  is  drawn  and  where  it  terminates. 
Tell  what  you  have  ohserved. 

The  diameter  of  a  sphere  is  a 
straight  line  drawn  through  the  center 
and  terminating  at  opposite  points 
of  the  surface. 

How  many  diameters  can  be  seen  in  the 
illustration  ?    Why  may  they  be  called  diam- 
eters?   How  many  diameters  may  a  sphere  have? 

Axis. — Thrust  a  wire  through  a  ball  so  that  it  may  represent  a  diameter 
of  the  ball.  Turn  the  ball  about  the  wire  or  diameter.  The  diameter  about 
which  a  sphere  turns  is  called  its  axis.  Tell  what  the  axis  of  a  sphere  is, 
or,  state  what  you  have  just  learned. 

The  axis  of  a  sphere  is  the  diameter  about  which  the 
sphere  turns,  or  rotates. 


THE   CIECLE— FORM  AND  SIZE  OF  THE  EARTH. 


3 


Poles. —  Press  on  the  surface  of  the  ball  just  wheie  the  ends  of  the  axis 
are.     These  jwints  are  called  poles.     State  what  the  poles  of  a  sphere  are. 

The  poles  are  the  points  on  the  surface  of  a  sphere  at  the 

extremities  of  its  axi.s. 

Spheroid. —  Press  on  the  poles  of  the  ball  and  notice  the  effect.  State 
whether  the  ball  still  resembles  a  sphere.  A  body  that  resembles  a  sphere 
is  called  a  spheroid.     }Iow  does  the  ball  now  differ  from  a  true  sphere? 

A  sphere  flattened  at  the  poles  is  called  an  oblate  spheroid. 

Circumference. —  Stretch  a  *thread  or  draw  a  line  about  the  ball  so  as  to 
divide  its  surface  into  two  equal  parts.  This  line  is  a  circumference  of  the 
ball.     Tell  what  the  circumference  is. 

The   circumference  of  a  sph6re  is  any  line  which  divides 

its  surface  into  two  equal  parts. 

How  many  circumferences  are  seen  in  the  illustration?  Why  are  they  cir- 
cumferences? IIow  many  circumferences  can  a  sphere  have?  If  you  were  to 
draw  a  line  alx)ut  a  sphere,  so  as  to  show  the  greatest  distance  round  it,  what 
would  such  a  line  be  called?     Why? 

THE  CIRCLE. 

Look  at  the  figure  and  notice  the  distance  from  the 
center  to  every  point  in  the  line  which  bounds  or  gives  the 
figure  its  shape.  State  whether  all  points  in  the  boundary 
line  are  equally  distant  from  the  center.  Such  a  figure  is 
called  a  circle.     Describe  a  circle  in  your  own  language? 

A  circle  is  a  figure  bounded  by  a  line,  every  point  in  which 

is  equally  distant  from  a  point  within  called  the  center. 

Circumference. — Describe  the  circumference  of  a  circle? 

The  circumference  of  a  circle  is  the  line  that  bounds  it. 

In  geography  the  circumference  is  often  called  a  circle,  but  the  real  circle  is 
the  entire  figure  or  surface  which  the  circumference  incloses. 

Diameter. — Notice  the  line  marked  diameter  and  state  what  kind  of  a 
line  it  is,  through  what  it  passes,  and  where  it  terminates. 

The  diameter  of  a  circle  is  any  straight  line  passing 
thi'ough  the  center  of  the  circle  and  terminating  at  opposite 
points  in  the  circumference. 


Plane  of  a  Circle. — The  figure  represents  a  level  surface,  or 
a  plane  extending  a  long  distance  in  every  direction.  The  circle 
is  seen  to  form  apart  of  this  great  plane.  Every  circle  is  a  part 
of  a  plane  that  we  imagine  to  be  boundless. 

•A  light  rubber  band  may  be  used  to  the  best  advantage. 

t  A  degree  is  the  aiig/e  at  the  center  measured  by  the  355  part  of  the  circumference,  and 
does  not  vary  with  the  size  of  the  circle.  Tlie  term  decree  is  often  used  as  an  abbreviated 
mode  of  expression  for  arc  of  a  degree.  In  this  sense,  if  the  circumference  be  360  miles,  then 
a  degree  of  that  circle  will  be  one  mile  long;  if  the  circle  be  3G0  inches  in  circumference, 
then  a  degree  will  be  one  inch,  etc.     The  circumference  of  the  earth  is  21,600  geographical 


The  plane  of  a  circle  is  the  great  plane  of  which  the  circle 
forms  a  part. 

Exercise. — Draw  a  circle  on  the  blackboard;  on  a  sheet  of  paper;  and  on 
the  floor.  Wliat  may  represent  the  plane  of  the  circle  drawn  on  the  black- 
board?   On  the  sheet  of  paper?    On  the  floor? 

Degrees. — The  circumference  of 
every  circle  is  divided  into  360  equal 
parts  called  degrees;  each  degree  into 
60  equal  parts  called  minutes;  and  each 
minute  into  60  equal  parts  called  sec- 
onds. 

Degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds  are 
marked  as  follows:  15°  24'  8";  read,  fif- 
teen degrees,  twenty-four  minutes,  eight  seconds.  The  length  of 
a  fdegree  of  the  circumference  depends  on  the  size  of  the  circle. 
As  seen  in  the  diagram,  90°  of  the  inner  circumference  are 
shorter  than  90°  of  the  outer  one. 

FORM  AND  SIZE  OF  THE  EARTH. 

Form. — The  earth  is  a  sj^here  slightly  flattened  at  the  poles; 
hence,  it  is  an  oblate  spheroid.  The  flattening  at  the  poles  is  so 
very  slight  that  we  commonly  speak  of  it  as  a  true  sphere.  Its 
mouatains  and  valleys  roughen  its  sur&ce  a  little,  but  they  do 
not  change  its  huge  form  so  much  accordingly  as  the  wrinkles  on 
an  orange  change  the  form  of  the  orange. 

Proof  of  the  Earth's  Form. — Hold  the  globe  in  the  light  of  the  sun  or  of  a 
lamp,  and  notice  the  form  of  its  shadow  on  the  wall.  Turn  the  globe  on  its  axis, 
and  see  if  the  form  of  the  sliadow  changes.  AVhat  is  the  form  of  the  shadow  in 
every  position  in  which  the  globe  can  be  held? 

Take  a  plate  and  note  the  form  of  its  sliadow  when  its  face  is  toward  the 
light.  Hold  it  in  different  positions  and  state  whether  the  form  of  the  shadow 
changes.  Place  an  egg  in  .several  positions  and  observe  the  form  of  its  shadow 
in  each.    What  must  be  the  form  of  any  body  whose  shadow  is  always  circular  ? 

The  shadow  of  the  earth  sometimes  falls  on  the  moon,  causing 

an  eclipse  of  that  body.     This  shadow  is  circular  and  does  not 

change  its  form  though  the  earth  is  turning  on  its  axis  all  the 

time.     What  must  be  the  form  of  the  earth?     JWhy  1 

Size. — The  diameter  of  the  earth  is  nearly  8,000  miles,  and 
its  circumference,  nearly  25,000.  Its  surface  contains  about 
200,000,000  square  mi^es. 

Let  us  try  to  get  some  idea  of  the  size  of  the  earth.  If  a  track  could  be  laid 
entirely  round  it,  and  a  train  of  cars  were  to  start  from  the  depot  on  the  first  day 
of  school,  and  run  500  miles  every  day,  it  would  be  over  seven  weeks  before  we 
should  hear  the  whistle  of  the  engine  again.  All  that  time,  while  we  were 
awake,  and  while  as.eep,  the  train  would  be  rushing  on  its  way. 

Were  the  earth  a  perfect  sphere  all  its  diameters  would  be  of  the  same  length ; 
but,  as  it  is  flattened  at  the  ix)les,  its  axis  or  shortest  diameter  is  7,899.17  miles, 
while  its  longest  or  equatorial  diameter  is  7,925.65  miles,  making  a  difference 
of  very  nearly  26.5  miles.  The  actual  circumference  of  the  earth  at  the  Equator 
is  24,899  miles,  and  its  actual  area  196,900,278  square  miles. 

Were  the  earth  to  be  represented  by  a  globe  two  feet  in  diameter,  the  flat^ 
tening  at  the  poles  would  not  shorten  its  axis  one- twelfth  of  an  inch,  and  such 
a  globe  would  appear  to  the  eye  to  be  a  true  sphere. 

Queries. — At  20  miles  an  hour,  how  long  would  it  take  a  train  to  run  a  dis- 
tance equal  to  the  earth's  diameter?  Were  we  to  count  one  hundred  a  minute, 
for  ten  hours  a  day,  how  many  years  would  be  required  to  count  200,000,000, — 
the  number  of  square  miles  in  the  earth's  surface? 

Direction  on  the  Earth's  Surface. — Represent  the  earth  by  a  ball  and 
its  axis  by  a  wire.     Slark  places  on  the  surface  of  the  ball  to  indicate  the 

miles,  of  60  to  a  degree,  or  24,902  English  miles,  of  69.17  to  a  degree.  The  Equator  consists  of 
360  degrees  of  60  geographical  miles  each.  Parallels  of  latitude,  being  smaller  circles,  have  each 
degree,  i.  e.,  the  arc  of  each  degree,  proportionately  shorter,  according  to  the  size  of  the  circle. — 
Lovell. 

X  As  the  form  of  the  earth  has  been  determined  by  actual  measurements,  other  proofs  are  not 
given. 


CIRCLES  OP  THE  EARTH— LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE. 


poles.  Hold  the  ball  so  that  the  axis  shalTl  point  to  the  North  Star,  or  Pole 
Star.  The  pole  which'  is  toward  the  North  Star  we  will  call  the  North  Pole; 
the  opposite  pole  is  the  South  Pole. 

On  the  surface  of  this  ball  and  on  the  earth,  north  is  toward  the  North 
Pole,  and  soath  is  toward  the  South  Pole.  Think  of  yourself  as  standing  on 
the  ball  facing  the  north.  With  your  arms  extended  your  right  hand  will 
point  which  way?  Your  left?  Still  facing  the  north,  rotate  the  ball  from 
the  left  over  to  the  right.  The  direction  of  this  motion  is  from  the  west  over 
to  the  east,  the  same  as  the  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis. 

CIRCLES  OF  THE  EARTH. 

In  order  to  fix  the  position  of  places  on  the  earth,  its  surface 
is  divided  by  imaginary  circles.  These  circles  are  of  two  kinds, 
great  and  small. 

Great  Circles. — Draw  a  line  or  stretch  a  thread  about  the  ball  midway 
between  the  poles.  Into  how  many  parts  does  this  circle  divide  the  ball? 
How  do  the  parts  compare  in  size? 

A  circle  that  divides  the  earth  into  two  equal  parts  is  called 
a  great  circle. 

This  circle  is  also  called  the  Equator.  Tell,  from  what  you  have  observed 
what  kind  of  a  circle  the  Equator  is  and  where  it  is  located. 

The  Equator  is  a  great  circle  midway  between  the  poles. 

Hemispheres.  —  Each  of 
the  two  equal  parts  into  which 
a  great  circle  divides  a  sphere 
is  called  a  hemisphere.  The 
Equator  divides  the  earth  in- 
to a  northern  and  a  southern 
hemisphere. 

Meridian  Circles. —  Take  the 
ball  or  globe  and  draw  a  great  circle 
through  the  poles.  Why  is  it  a  great 
circle?  This  is  called  a  meridiim 
circle.  Tell  what  a  meridian  circle  is. 

A  meridian  circle  is  a 
great  circle  drawn  through 
the  poles.  A  meridian  is 
half  of  a  meridian  circle 
and  extends  from  pole  to 
pole.  A  meridian  circle 
divides  the  earth  into  an 
eastern  and  a  western  hem- 
isphere. 

Meridian  means  midday. 
When  the  sun  reaches  the 
meridian  of  any  place  it  is 
noon  there,  and  at  all  other 
points  on  that  meridian. 

Small  Circles. — Trace  a  circle  half  way  between  the  Equator  and  the 
North  Pole.  Into  how  many  parts  does  it  divide  the  ball?  Are  the  parts 
equal  or  unequal  in  size? 

A  circle  that  divides  the  earth  into  two  unequal  parts  is 
called  a  small  circle. 

Parallels. — Look  at  the  diagram  which  follows  and  see  how  many  small 
circles  are  shown.  Trace  any  one  of  them  and  see  if  its  distance  from  the 
Equator  is  the  same  at  all  points. 

Lines  that  are  equidistant  throughout  their  whole  extent  are  said  to  be 
parallel.  As  the  small  circles  are  drawn  round  the  earth  parallel  with  the 
Equator,  they  are  called  parallels.     Define  a  parallel. 

A  parallel  is  a  small  circle  parallel  with  the  Equator. 


N0RTH„P01E 


SOUTH  POLE 

^  PARALLELS  AND  MERIDIANS. 

LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE. 

Latitude. ^Latitude  is  distance  north  or  south  from  the  Equa- 
tor, reckoned  in  degrees  instead  of  miles. 

How  many  degrees  in  a  meridian  circle?  How  many  from  pole  to  pole? 
From  the  Equator  to  cither  pole?  As  we  reckon  latitude  from  the  Equator, 
trace  the  meridian  marked  0  from  that  circle  to  the  North  Pole.  What  is 
the  distance  in  degrees?  What  figures  shall  we  place  at  the  North  Pole  to 
show  its  distance  from  the  Equator?    At  the  South  Pole? 

All  places  north  of  the  Equator  are  in  north  latitude,  and 
all  places  south  of  the  Equator  are  in  south  latitude. 

Exercises. —  Find  on  the  diagram,  and  on  tlie  globe,  20°  north  latitude, 
20°  south  latitude.  How  many  degrees  are  these  parallels  apart?  Find  40° 
north  latitude,  80°  north  latitude.  How  many  degrees  are  these  parallels 
apart?  How  many  miles  in  a  degree'on  the  Equator?  Are  the  number  of 
miles  in  a  degree  on  the  Equator  greater  or  less  than  the  number  in  a  degree 
on  the  40th  paralle'i?  In  what  direction  do  all  parallels  extend?  Where  are 
the  degrees  of  latitude  marked? 

The  Arctic  Circle,  Antarctic  Circle,  Tropic  of  Cancer  and  Tropic  of  Capri- 
corn are  also  parallels.  The  Tropic  of  Cancer  is  23.1°  north,  and  the  Tropic 
of  Capricorn  is  2;?.J°  south,  of  the  Equator.  The  Arctic  Circle  is  23J°  from  the 
North  Pole,  and  the  Antarctic  Circle  285°  from  the  South  Pole. 

Longitude. — Longitude  is  distance  east  or  west  from  a  me- 
ridian called  the  first  or  prime  meridian.  The  meridian  which 
passes  through  Greenwich  Observatory,  near  London,  is  taken 
as  the  first.  In  the  United  States  the  meridian  of  Washing- 
ton is  sometimes  used  as  the  first,  especially  by  our  seamen. 
The  French  reckon  from  Paris. 

Exercises. —  Noticing  the  diagram,  we  see  that  the  prime  meridian  is 
marked  0,  Tracing  the  Equator  20°  east  of  the  prime  meridian,  we  find  a 
meridian  marked  what?  What  20°  west?  One  meridian  indicates  20°  eiist 
longitude,  the  other  20°  west  longitude;  how  many  degrees  are  these  merid- 
ians apart?  How  many  degrees  east  longitude  are  shown?  How  many  de- 
grees west  longitude?  How  far  are  these  meridians  apart?  Find  on  the 
globe  180°  east  longitude,  180°  west  longitude.  How  far  are  these  merid- 
ians apart?  Find  40°  south  latitude,  60°  east  longitude.  Find  20°  north 
latitude,  20°  east  longitude.     Find  80°  south  latitude,  80°  west  longitude. 

MILES  IN  A  DEGREE  OF  LONGITUDE  IN  DIFFERENT  LATITUDES. 


Degrees  of 

Length  of 

Degrees  of 

Length  of 

Latitude. 

Degrees. 

Latitude. 

Degrees. 

Equator 

69.16  miles. 

45° 

48.99  miles. 

5° 

68.90     " 

55° 

39.76     " 

15° 

66.82     " 

65° 

29.31     " 

25° 

62.72     " 

75° 

17.96     " 

36° 

56.72     " 

85° 

6.84     " 

EEPEESENTATIOKS  OF  THE  EAETH— MOTIONS  OF  THE  EAETH. 


MAP  OF 


REPRESENTATIONS  OF  THE  EARTH. 

Globes. —  The  earth  is  best  represented  by  a  ball  with  draw- 
ings upon  its  surface  showing  the  great  divisions  of  land  and 
of  water.     Such  a  ball  is  called  a  globe. 

Maps. — A  map  represents  a  part,  or  the  whole,  of  the  earth's 
surface.  Maps  are  drawn  so  that  the  top  is  north  and  the  bot- 
tom south. 

A  map  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  earth  is  called  a  map 
of  the  world.   The  map 

on  this  page  shows  the  no^pole 

surface  of  oppositesides  ea^^H^H^^^^^o 

of  the  earth,  or  the 
Eastern  and  the  West- 
ern Hemisphere.  The 
hemispheres  are  sepa- 
rated by  the  20th  merid- 
ian, because  this  merid- 
ian does  not  cut  the 
great  bodies  of  land  in 
such  a  manner  as  to 
leave  any  one  of  them 
in  both  hemisijheres. 
The  dark  portions  of 
the  map  represent  land, 
the  lighter,  water. 

A  map  of  this  kind  is  said  to  be  drawn  on  a  globular  projection.  That  is,  as 
though  it  formed  a  part  of  tlie  surface  of  a  globe.  On  such  a  map  the  meridians 
converge  toward  the  poles.  Several  of  the  maps  in  this  book  are  drawn  on  what 
is  called  Mcrcntor's  Projection.  These  maps  are  drawn  as  though  the  earth  were 
a  cylinder.  On  them  the  meridians  are  parallel,  and  the  polar  regions  seem 
much  too  broad ;  but,  as  the  direction  of  one  place  from  another  is  always  cor- 
rectly shown,  navigators  prefer  to  use  them  as  guides. 


the  hemispheres.  Place  a  pencil  on  the  globe  so  as  to  point  up  from  the  North 
Pole.  From  the  South  Pole.  Equator.  Tropics.  Down  is  towards  what? 
Up  is  away  from  what? 

MOTIONS  OF  THE  EARTH. 

Day  and  Night. —  From  what  source  does  the  earth  receive  most  of  its 
light?  Hold  the  globe  in  the  light  of  the  sun,  or  of  a  lamp  to  represent  the 
sun.  Does  the  light  fall  on  half,  or  more  than  half,  of  its  surface?  Look  at  the 
three  figures,  and  then  state  whether  half,  or  less  than  half,  of  each  hemisphere 
is  in  the  sun's  light?  When  the  sun  shines  on  a  globe,  how  much  of  its 
surface  is  always  in  the  light?    State  which  side  of  the  globe  has  day  and  which 

side  has  night,  and  give  a 
THE   WOELD. 

NOFTTH  POlt 


SOUTH  POLE. 
WESTERN   HEMISPHERE. 


reason  for  your  statement. 
.  Put  a  rubber  band  about  the 
globe  so  as  to  mark  the  limit 
of  day  and  of  night.  Turn 
the  globe  very  slowly  on  its 
axis  from  west  to  east,  and 
mark  a  place  that  is  just 
coming  into  the  light,  and 
another  that  is  just  going  out 
of  the  light.  At  which  place 
is  the  sun  rising?  Setting? 
What  time  is  it  under  the 
sun,  just  half  way  between 
sunrise  and  sunset?  What 
time  is  it  on  the  dark  side, 
just  opposite  the  meridian, 
where  it  is  noon  ?  Is  it  noon , 
at  the  same  moment,  at  all 
points  on  that  meridian  ? 

If  you  turn  the  globe 
once  on  its  axis  in  twenty- 
fonr  hours,  how  long  will  it  take  the  point  you  have  marked  to  pass  from  sun- 
rise to  sunset?  From  sunset  to  sunrise?  What  did  you  do  to  bring  the  dark 
part  of  the  globe  into  the  liglit,  and  the  light  part  into  the  dark  —  a  succession 
of  day  and  night?  As  motion  about  the  axis  brings  day  and  night  on  the 
globe,  what  may  bring  day  and  night  on  the  earth  ?  How  many  degrees  round 
this  globe  ?  Round  the  earth?  As  the  earth  turns  on  its  axis  once  every  twenty- 
four  hours,  how  many  degrees  will  pass  under  the  sun  in  that  time?  In  one 
hour?    In  twelve  hours ?    How  many  degrees  of  motion  in  one  hour? 


SOUTH  pole:. 

EASTERN  llEMISniERB. 


MERCATOR'S  CHART. 

Exercises  on  the  Map  and  Globe.*— What  circles  of  the  earth  run  north 
and  south?  East  and  west?  What  circles  are  great  circles?  Why?  What 
circles  are  sniall  circles?  Why?  Where  do  north  and  south  begin?  How 
many  degrees  can  one  travel  north,  starting  from  the  South  Pole?  Start- 
ing from  the  Equator  ?  Stiirting  from  the  prime  meridian,  how  many  degrees 
can  one  travel  east?  West?  If  one  were  to  start  at  the  prime  meridian,  and 
travel  either  east  or  west  360°,  where  would  he  be  ?  Find  a  meridian  opposite 
the  prime  meridian.  Find  a  point  opposite  the  North  Pole.  Find  a  place  that 
has  no  latitude.  What  is  the  longitude  of  London  ?  Find  40°  north  latitude 
and  40°  west  longitude.  Find  a  place  in  south  latitude  directly  opposite  the 
point  above  named.  Find  a  point  opposite  that  where  the  100th  meridian 
crosses  the  Equator.     Point  out  the  meridian  circle  that  marks  the  boundary  of 

•  The  teacher  should  not  &a  to  use  Iwth  globe  and  map  for  this  work. 


Unequal  Length  of  Day  and  Night.— Look  at  Fig.  I.,  and  then  state 
whether  half,  or  more  than  half,  of  each  hemisphere  is  illuminated?  How 
many  degrees  of  each  parallel  in  both  hemispheres  are  in  the  light  and  how 
many  in  the  dark  ?  If  one-half  of  each  parallel  is  in  the  light  and  one-half 
is  in  the  dark,  how  will  the  length  of  the  days  and  of  the  nights  compare? 


FIG.  IL 

In  Fig.  II.,  do  the  sun's  rays  faH  on  more  or  less  than  one-half  of  each  par- 
allel in  the  Northern  Hemisphere?     In  the  Southern  Hemisphere?     Which 


6 


MOTIONS  OF  THE  EAKTH— CHANGE  OF  SEASONS. 


hemisphere  has  the  more  day-light?  How  do  the  days  compare  with  the 
nights  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere ?  In  the  Southern?  In  what  part  of  the 
Northern  Hemisphere  are  the  days  longest?  Which  portion  of  the  Southern 
Hemisphere  has  the  shortest  days? 


In  Fig.  III.,  how  do  the  days  compare  with  the  nights  in  the  Northern 
Hemisphere?    In  the  Southern?    Give  reasons  for  your  statements. 

From  all  this  we  learn  that  the  succession  of  day  and  night 
is  caused  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis;  and  that 
the  length  of  day  and  night  depends  on  the  relative  positions 
of  the  sun  and  earth.  In  Fig.  I.  the  sun  is  directly  over  the 
Equator,  and  one-half  of  each  hemisphere  and  of  each  parallel  is 
illuminated  by  its  rays.  The  days  and  nights  are  then  equal 
all  over  the  earth. 

In  the  summer  we  have  long  days  and  short  nights,  because 
at  that  season  the  sun  is  north  of  the  Equator,  and,  as  in  Fig. 
II.,  more  than  one-half  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere  is  illumi- 
nated. In  the  winter  the  reverse  is  true,  because  the  sun  is 
south  of  the  Equator,  as  in  Fig.  III.,  and  less  than  one-half 
of  the  Northern  Hemisphere  is  illuminated. 

It  will  be  seen  that  one-half  of  the  Equator  is  in  the  light  at 
all  times,  and  for  that  reason  the  days  and  nights  at  the  Equator 
are  always  equal. 

Exercises. — Use  some  object  to  represent  the  sun,  and  hold  the  globe  in  a 
position  to  give  equal  day  and  night  from  pole  to  pole.  Over  what  circle  must 
the  sun  be?  Hold  the  globe  so  as  to  give  the  Northern  Hemisphere^ short  days 
and  long  nights.  Is  the  sun  now  north  or  south  of  the  Equator  ?  Give  the 
Southern  Hemisphere  long  days  and  short  nights. 

Queries. — What  would  be  lost,  and  what  gained,  if  we  lived  in  a  world  of  per- 
petual day?  How  are  plants  and  animals  affected  by  the  alternation  of  day 
and  night?    What  animals  sleep  during  the  day? 

Change  of  Seasons. —  The  sun  is  the  source  of  heat  as  well 
as  of  light.  The  more  nearly  direct  or  vertical  its  rays,  the 
greater  the  amount  of  heat  they  impart.  "We  feel  the  heat 
much  more  at  noon,  when  the  sun  is  high  in  the  heavens,  and 
its  beams  fall  almost  directly  upon  our  heads,  than  in  the 
morning,  when  they  strike  the  earth  obliquely.  The  low  sun 
of  winter,  with  its  oblique  rays,  gives  far  less  heat  than  the 
high  sun  of  summer,  with  its  nearly  vertical  rays. 


The  diagram  will  help  us  to  see  why 
the  vertical  rays  impart  more  heat  than 
the  slanting  or  oblique  rays.  The  body 
of  vertical  rays  and  the  body  of  slanting 
rays  are  of  the  same  width,  but  the 
slanting  rays  cover  more  surface  than 
the  vertical  rays.  As  the  slanting  rays 
spread  over  much  more  surface  than  the 
vertical  rays,  it  is  plain  that  the  heat  on 
that  surface  must  be  less  than  on  the 
smaller  surface  covered  by  the  vertical 
rays. 


Were  the  sun's  position  in  the  heavens  the  same  at  all  times, 
there  would  be  no  variation  in  the  direction  of  its  rays.    Some 


portions  of  the  earth  would  be  always  very  warm ;  others,  al- 
ways very  cold ;  and  others  still,  always  moderate. 

But  the  position  of  the  sun  is  constantly  changing,  so  that 
its  more  direct  rays  sometimes  fall  on  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere, sometimes  on  the  Southern,  and  at  other  times  both 
hemispheres  receive  an  equal  amount  of  heat. 

The  change  of  seasons  is  due  to  these  constant  and  regular 
changes  in  the  position  of  the  sun. 

The  earth  moves  round  the  sun  once  every  year  in  an  im- 
aginary path  called  its  orMt.  The  sxm  itself  does  not  move.  All 
its  seeming  movements  are  earned  by  the  motions  of  the  earth  on  its 
axis  or  in  its  orbit. 

A  careful  study  of  the  diagram  will  enable  us  to  see  how 
the  change  of  seasons  is  brought  about. 

Look  at  the  diagram  and  point  out  the  sun,  the  earth,  and  ita  orbit. 

State  whether  the  axis  of  the  earth  is  perpendicular,  or  inclined  to  the 
plane  of  the  earth's  orbit.  State  whether  the  axis  has  the  same  inclination 
and  points  in  the  same  direction  in  all  of  the  four  positions. 


CHANGE  OF  SEASONS. 


Which  pole  is  turned  away  from  the  sun  on  the  22d  of  December? 
Which  pole  is  Ln  the  dark  and  which  in  the  light?  What  circle  marks 
the  northern  limit  of  the  sun's  rays?  What  circle  must  mark  their  limit 
beyond  the  South  Pole?  Is  the  sun  north  or  south  of  the  Equator?  Wliich 
hemisphere  receives  the  more  direct  rays?  What  season  is  it  in  the  Southern 
Hemisphere?    In  the  Northern?    Wliy? 

How  far  north  and  how  far  south  do  the  sun's  rays  extend  on  the  21st 
of  March?  The  polar  circles  being  23j°  from  the  poles,  how  far  north  does 
the  sun  appear  to  have  moved  since  December  22d?  Wlien  the  sun's  rays 
extend  from  pole  to  pole,  over  what  circle  must  the  sun  be?  As  the  sun 
is  over  the  Equator  and  moving  northward,  wliat  season  is  beginning  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere?     In  the  Southern? 

Which  pole  is  turned  toward  the  sun  on  the  21st  of  June?  Which 
pole  is  in  the  shade  and  which  in  tlie  light?  What  circles  mark  the  limit 
of  the  sun's  oblique  rays?    Which  hemisphere  has  summer  and  which  winter? 

How  far  north  do  the  oblique  rays  of  the  sun  extend  on  the  22d  of 
September?  As  the  North  Pole  marks  their  northern  limit,  what  must 
mark  their  southern?  How  far  south  does  the  sun  appear  to  have  traveled 
since  the  21st  of  June?  Over  what  circle  is  it?  As  it  is  over  the  Equator 
and  moving  southward,  what  season  is  beginning  in  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere?   In  the  Northern? 

We  have  now  observed  the  earth  at  four  different  points  in 
its  orbit,  and  have  learned  that  the  change  of  seasons  is  brought 
about  by  the  revolution  of  the  earth  round  the  sun,  with  its  axis  inclined 
to  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  and  always  pointing  in  the  same  direction. 

Referring  constantly  to  the  diagram,  let  US  take  the  journey 


DAY   AND   NIGHT   AT  THE   POLES— 2;0NEg. 


again:  On  the  22d  of  December  the  North  Pole  of  the  earth  is 
turned  away  from  the  sun,  which  is  directly  over  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn,  23  J  °  south  of  the  Equator.  The  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere then  receives  the  more  direct  rays  of  the  sun  and  has 
summer.  At  the  same  time  the  Northern  Hemisphere  is  partly 
in  the  shade;  the  slanting  rays  of  the  low  midday  sun  reaching 
only  to  the  Arctic  Circle,  winter  reigns  in  that  hemisphere. 

Three  months  later,  on  the  21st  of  March,  the  sun  is  over 
the  Equator  and  its  beams  fall  equally  on  both  hemispheres. 
Spring  is  coming  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  which  the  sun  is 
entering,  and  autumn  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  which  the 
sun  is  leaving. 

Higher  and  higher  mounts  the  sun,  till  June  21st,  when  we 
find  the  North  Pole  turned  toward  it,  and  the  oblique  rays 
extending  to  the  Arctic  Circle  beyond.  The  sun  is  now  over 
the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and  the  Northern  Hemisphere  has  sum- 
mer, the  Southern,  winter. 

During  the  six  months  from  December  22d,  the  sun  has 
passed  from  Capricorn  to  Cancer,  a  distance  of  47°,  and  has 
wakened  the  Northern  Hemisphere  from  the  cold  and  apparent 
death  of  winter,  to  the  warmth  and  life  of  summer;  while  the 
Southern  Hemisphere  has  had  its  change  from  summer  to 
winter. 

The  sun  now  turns 
in  its  course  and  jour- 
neys to  the  southern 
tropic,  crossing  the 
Equator  and  the  belt 
between  the  tropics  for 
the  second  time  during 
the  year;  so,  on  the 
22d  of  September  we 
again  find  it  over  the 
Equator,  leaving  the 
Northern  Hemisphere 
where  autumn  is  at 
hand  and  entering  the 
Southern,  to  bring 
spring,  and  summer  later  on  in  the  circling  year,  when  the 
earth  shall  approach  our  place  of  starting  not  one  second  behind 
time. 

The  Arctic  and  the  Antarctic  Circles  are  placed,  as  we  have  seen,  23j° 
from  the  poles  to  mark  the  limit  of  the  sun's  oblique  rays  in  June  and  in 
December.  The  tropics  are  placed  23.J°  from  the  Equator  to  show  the 
limit  of  the  sun's  apparent  journey  north  and  south  of  the  Equator  and  of 
its  vertical  rays  on  the  earth. 

From  the  time  when  the  sun  crosses  the  Equator  on  its  northern  journey, 
to  June,  when  it  reaches  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  the  progress  of  spring  may 
be  traced  northward  from  the  land  of  summer  to  the  land  of  ice.  Early 
in  March  the  maple  buds  are  opening  along  the  Mississippi  in  latitude  35°, 
a  week  later  in  Southern  Illinois.  Early  in  April  the  spread  of  spring 
verdure  has  reached  Southern  Iowa. 

By  the  1st  of  May  the  willows,  the  birches,  and  the  spring  flowers  are  burst- 
ing into  beauty  on  the  banks  of  the  Upper  Mississippi.  15y  the  last  of  that 
month  the  thrill  of  spring  life  is  felt  to  the  Arctic  Circle  and  the  Alpine  plants 
begin  to  put  forth  their  tender  leaves  and  fragrant  flowers.  After  a  short  sum- 
mer in  those  far  northern  regions,  we  may  follow  the  receding  wave  of  life 
southward,  by  watching  the  widening  belt  of  sere  autumn  foliage. 

Day  and  Night  at  the  Poles. —  Looking  at  the  diagram 
again,  we  see  that,  on  the  21st  of  March,  the  sun's  oblique 
rays  reach  the  North  Pole.  Day  at  that  pole  then  begins. 
From  that  time  on  to  June  21st,  the  North  Pole  continues  in 
the  light,  and  the  sun's  rays  extend  further  and  further  until 
they  touch  the  Arctic  Circle  beyond  the  pole.  Up  to  Sep- 
tember 22d,  the  North  Pole  remains  in  the  light  which  covers 


less  and  less  of  the  space  within  the  circle,  until  the  oblique 
rays  again  reach  no  further  than  the  pole.  Six  months  have 
passed  since  the  day  began  at  the  North  Pole,  and  the  sun, 
circling  round  a  few  degrees  above  the  horizon,  has  remained 
in  sight  every  moment  of  that  time. 

On  the  22d  of  September  the  North  Pole  is  left  in  the 
shade,  which  grows  deeper  and  deeper  until  December  22d. 
It  then  becomes  lighter  and  lighter  until  March  21st,  when 
the  king  of  day  again  appears  just  in  the  horizon.  At  the 
South  Pole  it  is  day  when  it  is  night  at  the  North;  and 
night  when  it  is  day  at  the  North  Pole.  The  poles  alone 
have  six  months  day  and  six  months  night. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  LONGEST  DAYS  IN  DIFFERENT  LATITUDES. 


Latitude. 

Longest  Day. 

Latitude. 

Longest  Day. 

Equator 

12.0  hours. 

55° 

17.3  hours. 

10° 

12.7     " 

60° 

18.7     " 

20° 

13.3     " 

Arctic  Circle 

24.0     " 

Cancer 

13.5     " 

67.5 

1  month. 

30° 

14.0     " 

69.5 

2       " 

35° 

14.5     " 

73.3 

3       " 

40° 

15.0     " 

78.3 

4       " 

45° 

15.6     " 

84.0 

5       " 

50° 

16.3     " 

North  Pole 

6       " 

MAP  OF  THE  WORLD  SHOWIMO  ZONES. 


Exercises. — Draw  a  cray- 
on mark  on  the  floor  to  rep- 
resent the  earth's  orbit.  The 
floor  may  be  the  plane  of 
the  orbit.  Place  a  lamp 
within  the  orbit  to  represent 
the  sun.  Now  hold  the 
globe  over  the  orbit  with  its 
axis  inclined  23J°  from  a 
perpendicular  and  pointing 
to  the  North  Star.  Eemem- 
ber  to  keep  the  axis  thus 
inclined  and  pointing  in  the 
same  direction. 

Place  the  globe  in  a  posi- 
tion to  represent  winter  in 
the    Northern   Hemisphere. 
What  season  is  it    in   the 
Southern   Hemisphere?     Is 
it  day  or  night  at  the  North  Pole?    Which  hemisphere  has  the  longest  nights? 
Place  the  globe  in  a  position  to  represent  summer  in  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere.    Is  it  day  or  night  at  the  South  Pole?    Which  hemisphere  has  the 
longest  days?    Place  the  globe  so  as  to  represent  spring.    To  represent  autumn. 

ZONES. 

"Were  the  earth  an  extended  plain,  all  parts  oi  its  surface 
would  receive  an  equal  number  of  the  sun's  rays.  Its  spher- 
ical form  causes  the  surface  to  incline  away  from  the  sun,  and 
so  to  receive  less  heat  as  we  go  north  or  south  of  the  equa- 
torial regions  where  it  is  always  nearly  or  quite  vertical.  Eec- 
oguizing  this  fact,  geographers  have  divided  the  earth's  surface 
into  five  belts,  or  zones    of  temperature. 

The  Torrid  Zone  lies  between  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and 
the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  and  is  47°  in  width. 

The  North  Frigid  Zone  lies  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle  and 
extends  to  the  pole. 

The  South  Frigid  Zone  lies  south  of  the  Antarctic  Circle  and 
extends  to  the  South  Pole. 

The  North  Temperate  Zone  lies  between  the  Tropic  of  Can- 
cer and  the  Arctic  Circle;    and  the  South  Temperate  Zone 


8 


DIVISIONS  OF  LAND— DIVISIONS  OF  WATEE. 


between  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  and  the  Antarctic  Circle. 

The  sun's  rays  always  fall  vertically  on  some  portion  of 
the  Torrid  Zone,  and  this  is  the  hottest  belt  of  the  earth. 

The  Frigid  Zones  receive  the  oblique  rays  of  the  sun,  and, 
during  a  portion  of  the  year,  are,  in  part,  without  its  light. 
They  are,  therefore,  very  cold.  Their  seasons  are  a  long  winter 
and  a  short  summer. 

The  Temperate  Zones  are  neither  so  cold  as  the  Frigid 
Zones,  nor  so  hot  as  the  Torrid.     They  have  four  seasons. 

TABLE  SHOWING  AREA  OF  ZONES. 

Torrid  Zone 78,219,256  square  miles. 

Temperate  Zones 102,221,526  square  miles. 

Frigid  Zones 16,459,496  square  miles. 

There  are  no  visible  boandaries  between  the  different  zones,  and  we  experi- 


ence no  sndden  change  of  temperature  in  passing  from  one  to  another.  Those 
portions  of  the  Temperate  Zones  near  the  Frigid  are  nearly  as  cold  as  the 
Frigid;  and  those  portions  near  the  tropics  are  nearly  as  warm  as  the  Torrid. 

Summers  in  High  Latitudes. — The  summers  in  high  northern  latitudes, 
though  short,  are  very  warm,  bringing  vegetation  forward  rapidly.  A  July 
day  in  St.  Petersburg,  hilitude  60°  north,  may  be  as  warm  or  warmer  than  in 
New  York,  latitude  41°;  and  some  summer  days  in  Minnesota  show  nearly  as 
high  a  temperature  as  any  day  in  tlie  tropics. 

The  increasing  length  of  the  day,  as  compared  with  the  night,  as  we  go 
north,  enables  us  to  explain  this.  Where  the  days  and  nights  are  of  equal 
length,  the  earth  loses  about  as  much  heat  during  the  twelve  hours  of  darkness 
as  it  receives  from  the  sun  during  the  twelve  hours  of  daylight,  and  no  surplus 
heat  is  left  over  in  the  morning  with  which  to  begin  the  new  day.  But  where 
the  sun  pours  its  heat  upon  the  earth  for  eighteen  hours  out  of  twenty-four, 
as  in  latitude  60°  north,  only  six  hours  are  left  for  tlie  earth  to  cool,  and  con- 
siderable heat  remains  the  next  morning,  still  more  the  following  morning,  and, 
in  a  little  time,  the  days  become  exceedingly  warm. 

Queries. — How  is  it  when  the  nights  are  longer  than  the  days?  What  is 
the  character  of  the  summers  in  high  southern  latitudes?    Why? 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


DIVISIONS  OF  LAND. 

About  one-fourth  of  the  earth's  surface  is  land,  and  three- 
fourths  water.  The  land  is  composed  of  a  few  large  bodies 
called  continents,  and  of  innumerable  smaller  ones  called  islands. 


sea-level  are  lowlands.  Those  much  above,  highlands.  Large 
extents  of  level  land  are  called  plains,  prairies,  llanos,  pampas, 
steppes,  plateaus,  or  table-lands. 

A  plateau  is  an  elevated  plain.     Such  a  plain  is  also  called 
table-land. 


DIVISIONS  OF  LAND    AND  WATER. 


The  continents  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  are  North 
America  and  South  America.  Those  of  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere are  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

The  part  of  a  continent  or  island  which  borders  the  sea  is 
its  coast.  The  land  bordering  lakes  or  other  small  bodies  of 
water  is  most  frequently  spoken  of  as  the  shore. 

Points  of  land  formed  by  the  bending  of  the  coast  are  capes. 
If  such  points  are  high  or  bold  they  are  promontories. 

A  point  of  land  extending  far  into  the  water,  and  some- 
times nearly  surrounded  by  it,  is  a  peninsula;  and  a  neck  of 
land  joining  two  larger  bodies  is  an  isthmus. 

Surface  of  the  Land. — The  surface  of  the  sea  is  every- 
where at  the  same  level;  but  the  land  surface  varies  greatly 
in  elevation.  The  height  of  lands  is  always  compared  with  the 
level  of  the  sea.    Those  lands  which  are  but  little  above  the 


SURFACK  OF  THE  LAND. 

Lofty  ridges  of  land  extending  across  a  country  are  moun- 
tain ranges. 

Mountains  that  send  up  columns  of  smoke,  ashes,  and  melted 
rocks,  or  lava,  are  called  volcanoes. 

Plains  are  seldom  entirely  level.  They  often  have  an  irreg- 
ular, or  a  rolling  surface,  with  hills  here  and  there.  Most 
prairies  are  gently  rolling. 

DIVISIONS  OF  WATER. 

The  vast  body  of  water  encircling  the  earth  and  surround- 
ing the  continents  and  islands  is  called  the  sea.  The  sea  is 
divided  into  oceans. 

The  oceans  are  the  Pacific,  Atlantic,  Indian,  Arctic,  and 
Antarctic. 

The  ocean  sometimes  projects  into,  or  indents,  the  land, 


GENEEAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  MAP  SKETCHING. 


forming  gulfs  or  bays,  or,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  seas. 

Narrow  passages  of  water  connecting  larger  bodies  are  chan- 
■nels  or  straits;  and  a  strait  or  a  bay  of  shallow  water  is  a  sound. 

Where  water  of  sufficient  depth  is  nearly  surrounded  by 
iknd  so  as  to  protect  it  from  the  winds,  a  harbor  is  formed, 
where  ships  may  enter  and  lie  in  safety. 

Inland  Waters. — "Waters  lying  entirely  within  the  land 
are  called  inland  waters.  These  consist  of  lakes  and  rivers.  A 
lake  is  a  body  of  water  lying  in  a  basin  or  hollow  of  the  land. 
In  the  Old  World  salt  lakes  are  sometimes  called  seas.  A  river 
is  a  large  stream  of  water  flowing  in  a  channel  through  the 
land. 

Exercise. —  Find  the  several  divisions  of  land  and  of  water  in  the  picto- 
rial illustrations,  and  also  on  the  globe,  and  on  the  several  maps.  As  you 
do  so,  tell  why  the  division  pointed  out  is  a  plateau,  mountain,  lake,  river, 
or  whatever  it  may  be. 

MAP  SKETCHING. 

To  the  Teacher. — Map  sketching  without  diagrams  is  now 
practiced  in  many  of  the  best  schools  with  most  satisfactory 
results.     It  is  strongly  recommended  for  the  following  reasons: 

1.  It  trains  the  pupil  to  "careful,  accurate,  comprehensive  seeing,"  and 
makes  the  ideas  of  form,  distance,  and  jjosition  clear  and  histing. 

2.  It  qualifies  pupils  to  picture  their  thoughts,  or,  in  other  words,  cultiviites 
the  power  of  representation,  which  will  be  of  great  service  in  other  studies, 
and  in  after  life. 

3.  It  enables  the  teacher  to  test  pupils  iu  a  sure  way,  and  m.iy  be  of  great 
advantage  in  reviews. 

4.  It  gives  a  pleasing  variety  to  the  exercises. 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  MAP  SKETCHING. 

No  diagrams  are  to  be  used.  The  eye  is  to  judge  of  form,  distance,  direc- 
tion, and  position.  The  scale  may  be  used  to  test  the  judgment  of  the  eye,  tfie 
accuracy  of  work  when  done. 

Direct  the  attention  of  pupils  to  the  feature  to  be  sketched,  and  when  they 
have  a  clear  mental  picture  of  that  feature  they  are  prepared  to  sketch  on  paper, 
slate  or  bl.ackboard,  a.s  you  may  desire.  Teach  them  to  see  quickly,  to  sketch 
rapidhi,  and  from  memory.  Have  them  compare  their  work  with  the  map  in 
the  book,  and  sketch  ajjaiu  and  again  until  it  is  fairly  accurate. 

The  pupil  should  in\ariably  construct  maps  of  the  country  he  is  studying, 
and  he  should  be  encouraged  to  practice  sketching  when  preparing  his  les.sous. 
Make  the  map-work  progres-fire,  drawing,  from  day  to  day,  boundaries,  moun- 
tains, lakes,  rivers,  etc.,  in  the  order  in  which  these  topics  are  treated  in  the 
text. 

Pupils  should  be  required  to  sketch  diagrams  similar  to  the  following, 
showing  the  relief  of  continents,  and  of  countries.  For  instance,  one  who  hiis 
studied  the  ph3'sical  features  of  Mexico  should  be  able  to  draw  a  simple  illus- 
tration, showing  the  sea  level,  the  low  coasts,  and  the  benches  forming  the  great 
Mexican  Plateau. 


SECTION  OF  NORTir  AMERICA. 

Where  pupils  have  had  no  practice  in  sketching,  it  is  well  to  take  a  pre- 
liminary course  like  the  following: 

1.  Some  of  the  square  or  oblong  counties  of  one's  own  state.  2.  A  regu- 
lar state  like  Kansas.  3.  States  of  irregular  forms,  gradually  increasing  in 
diflculty.     4.  A  regular  continent,  like  South  America  or  Africa. 

"If  some  such  course  is  taken,  intelligently,  Europe  can  be  drawn  by 
sketching  as  accurately  as  by  diagram,"  writes  a  teacher  of  extended  and 
successful  experience. 

Teach  pupils  to  sketch  a  river,  a  lake,  a  mountain,  a  state — whatever  may 
be  before  the  class  at  tlie  time.  Rve  minutes  is  ample  time  for  sketching  a 
good  outline  m^p  of  Minnesota,  California,  or  any  other  irregular  state. 

In  conducting  a  review,  the  class  should  be  required  to  sketch  wholly  from 
memory.  Each  pupil  nuay  sketch  the  entire  map,  or  one  member  of  the  cla-ss 
may  take  boundaries;  another,  mountiHus;  a  third,  rivers;  a  fourth,  cities.  A 
few  moments  spent  in  this  way  will  show  what  mental  pictures  have  been  re- 
tained. 

Do  not  allow  yourself  or  your  pupils  to  become  discouraged  or  to  say, 
"I  can't."  You  are  not  working  to  produce  artistic  maps,  and  this  is  not  the 
chief  end  to  be  kept  in  view.  The  sketches  at  first  may  be  quite  rude,  and 
bear  little  resemblance  to  the  engraved  maps  in  the  book;  but  you  should 
remember  that  every  printed  m.ap  was  originally  drawn  by  hand,  and  that 
there  ciinnot,  therefore,  be  a  copy  or  model  beyond  the  reach  of  careful  and 
continued  practice. 

Special  directions,  founded  on  relations  of  distance,  direction,  .and  form, 
should  be  made  for  each  map,  until  pupils  are  able  to  dispense  with  such  aid. 


The  following  will  serve  to  show  the  scope  of  this  work,  and  the  mode  of  con- 
ducting an  exercise. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  SKETCHING  ILLINOIS. 

1.  Look  at  the  map  in  the 
book,  or  as  drawn  by  the  teach- 
er, seeing  only  the  outlines  or 
boundaries.  Observe  the  form 
of  the  state,  its  comparative 
length  and  width  ;  where  it  is 
widest,  etc.  Close  the  eyes  and 
try  to  form  a  mental  picture  of 
the  map.  Repeat  this  process. 
Draw  the  map  on  paper  or  on 
the  black  board  without  referring 
to  the  copy  until  it  is  finished, 
and  mlhout  erasing.  (The  above 
refers  only  to  the  outlines  or 
boundary  lines.) 

2.  Compare  the  map  just 
drawn  with  the  copy,  in  order  to 
correct  the  mental  picture,  and 
draw  the  map  again.  Again 
compare  and  again  draw.  Each 
drawing  should  occupy  about 
0)16  minute. 

3.  Observe  the  locations  of 
the  cities  on  the  map.  Close 
the  eyes  and  locate  them  on  the 
mental  map.  Draw  another 
map  of  the  state  and  locate  the 
cities.  Compare  with  copy  and 
draw  again. 

4.  Observe  the  rivers. 
Place  them  with  the  cities  in  the  mental  map.  Draw  a  new  map,  locating 
cities  and  rivers.     Compare  with  copy  and  draw  again. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  SKETCHING  NORTH  AMERICA. 

1.  Form  a  menfcil  picture  of  the  northern  coast  line,  from  Cape  Barrow  to 
the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle.  Do  this  by  looking  at  the  map  and  then  closing  the  eyes 
and  trying  to  see  the  picture.  Rejjeat  this  until  the  mental  picture  is  definite, 
and  then  draw  the  northern  coast. 

2.  Proceed  in  a  similar  manner  with  the  ea.stem  coast  line,  from  the  Strait 
of  Belle  Lsle  to  Cape  Sable,  joining  it  to  the  ixirtion  already  drawn. 

3.  Treat  the  Gulf  coast  and  the  coast  of  the  CaribWan  Sea  in  the  manner 
described  in  1,  joining  the  drawing  to  that  of  the  northern  and  eastern  coast. 

4.  Observe  and  draw  the  western  coast,  following  the  .same  directions. 

5.  Draw  the  entire  outline  of  the  map,  comparing  the  drawing  with  the 
map,  and  drawing  again  until  approximate  accuracy  has  been  secured. 

6.  Draw  another  map  and  add  the  mountains. 

7.  Draw  another  map,  adding  the  rivers  and  hakes. 

8.  Draw  the  islands  from  memory,  after  forming  the  mental  picture. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  SKETCHING  THE  MISSISSIPPI  SYSTEM. 

1.  With  the  eye  tr<ace  the  Mississippi  from  Lake  Itasca  to  the  Gulf,  care- 
fully observing  its  course  and  the  location  of  each  of  the  chief  cities  on  its 


MISSISSIPPI 

SYSTEM 


banks.    Trace  the  Ohio  and  other  tributaries  in  the  same  manner,  noticing 
where  each  enters  the  Mississippi.     Trace  the  Gulf  coast. 

2.  Sketch  the  entire  Mississippi  system  from  the  mental  map.  Time, 
one  minute.  Compare  the  sketch  with  the  map  in  the  book,  and,  if  not  accu- 
rate, try  again. 


>|^  ^^^^^^*  NORTH  POLE  S     ^^^^^^  "•--< 


GLOBE  AND  MAP  STUDIES. 

stretch  a  rubber  band  about  the  globe  so  as  to  represent  the  meridian 
circle  that  divides  the  earth  into  an  eastern  and  a  western  hemisphere.  Find 
the  prime  meridian  on  the  globe  and  on  the  map.  Find  the  180th  degree 
of  longitude  on  the  globe  and  on  the  map.  Find  the  150th  degree  of  east 
longitude  on  both.  The  170th  degree  of  east  and  of  west  longitude  on  both. 
Find  the  island  of  Iceland  and  the  peninsula  of  Kamtchatka  on  the  globe 
and  also  on  both  hemispheres.  Why  are  these  countries  drawn  on  both 
hemispheres? 

Find,  on  the  globe  and  on  the  map,  the  circle  that  divides  the  earth  into 
a  northern  and. a  southern  hemisphere.  Begin  at  the  first  meridian  and  trace 
the  Equator  round  the  globe  from  west  to  east;  also  on  the  map  in  the  same 
direction.  Trace  the  tropics  and  the  polar  circles.  In  tracing  these  circles 
on  the  globe,  find  the  points  where  they  leave  the  Eastern  and  enter  the  West- 
ern Hemisphere.     Find  the  same  jmints  on  the  map. 

Which  hemisphere  contains  the  most  land?  Which  contains  the  most  water, 
the  Northern  or  the  Southern  Hemisphere?  Which  hemisphere  contains  the 
largest  islands? 

Name  the  continents  of  the  Eastern  and  of  the  Western   Hemisphere 


Judging  by  the  eye,  name  them  in  the  order  of  their  size,  beginning  with 
the  largest.  Name  the  continents  which  are  most  alike  in  form,  and  speak  of 
some  of  the  points  of  resemblance.  Which  continent  has  the  mo.st  irregular 
coast  ?  What  continents  resemble  one  another  in  the  direction  of  their  monnir 
ain  ranges?    Name  eight  large  isLinds  in  the  order  of  their  size. 

Name  the  oceans.  What  continents  are  separated  by  the  Atlantic?  By 
the  Pacific?  Which  is  the  longest  and  which  the  broadest  ocean?  What 
ocean  extends  from  pole  to  pole?  Which  ocean  is  bordered  by  the  largest 
number  of  guKs,  bays,  and  seas?  Which  washes  the  largest  number  of  con- 
tinents? Which  contains  the  greatest  number  of  islands?  Name  the  seas 
that  wash  the  coast  of  Asia.  Of  Europe.  Name  the  great  rivers  whose 
waters  find  their  way  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Into  the  Pacific.  Indian. 
Arctic. 

Judging  by  the  eye,  which  zone  contains  the  most  land?  Wliich  the 
least?  What  continents  extend  into  three  zones?  Which,  probably,  is  the 
warmest  continent?  Point  out  the  coolest  portion  of  each  continent.  Which  ■ 
zone  contains  the  largest  number  of  islands?  Name  the  largest  islands  of 
the  North  Temperate  Zone.  Of  the  Torrid.  What  changes  of  climate  would 
we  notice  in  traveling  overland  from  Behring  Strait  to  Cape  Horn?  From 
the  British  Isles,  by  sea,  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope?  From  Lisbon  to  Pe- 
kin,  on  the  40th  parallel? 


10 


^^_^.,0'^       g.     ___N0R1>^0LE .^     ''^»i-^_*t7?7 


NORTHERN  HEMISPHERE. 

J2 » 


vsi~'   "W' 


Trace  the  following  on  the  globe  and  on  the  map :    The 
shortest  water  route  from  Sydney,  in  Australia,  to  New  Zealand. 
From  New  York  to  London.    From  San  Francisco  to  Shanghai. 
From  Melbourne  to  New  York.      From  Liverpool  to  Sydney. 

AREAS  OF  CONTINENTS  AND  OCEANS. 

Square  Miles. 

Square  Miles. 

North  America... 
South  America... 

8,892,000 
6,957,500 
3,829,800 
17,317,900 
11,556,700 
4,232,000 

Pacific  Ocean 

Atlantic  Ocean... 

Indian  Ocean 

Antarctic  Ocean.. 
Arctic  Ocean 

72,000,000 

35,000,000 

25,000,000 

7,000,000 

5,000,000 

Africa 

Oceania 

52,780,900 

144,000,000 

SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERE. 

80_ 


11 


12 


CLIMATE— FOEMS  OF  LAND. 


CLIMATE. 

The  climate  of  a  country  is  the  condition  of  its  atmosphere 
in  regard  to  heat  and  moisture. 

Climate  has  a  very  great  influence  on  the  plants  and  ani- 
mals of  a  country;  and  also  on  the  occupations  and  character 
of  its  people. 

Some  plants  require  much  heat,  and  others  thrive  best  where  the  temper- 
ature is  moderate  or  cool.  Some  grow  only  where  the  air  is  moist,  while  others, 
as  the  date  palm,  flourish  in  the  dry  atmosphere  of  the  desert. 

Few  animals  can  live  in  all  climates.  The  elephant  enjoys  the  heat  of  the 
tropics,  the  white  bear,  the  cold  of  the  polar  regions,  while  the  cow  does  best  in 
the  Temperate  Zones. 

In  cold  climates  men  require  warm  houses,  abundant  clothing,  and  fuel; 
while  in  hot  climates  cooler  dwellings  and  little  clothing  and  fuel  are  needed. 
Farmers  in  the  warm  zones  cultivate  sugar  cane,  cotton,  coflfee,  and  bananas; 
in  the  Temperate  Zones,  the  grains  and  grasses. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  subject  of  climate  should 

receive  our  careful  attention.     As  climate  depends  mainly  on 

distance  from  the  Equator,  distance  from  the  sea,  elevation 

above  the  sea,  slope  of  land,   direction   of  mountain  chains, 

ocean  currents,  and  prevailing  winds,  these  topics,   with  the 

exception  of  the  first,  which  has  already  been  treated  under 

"Zones,''  will  be  discussed  in  the  lessons  which  follow. 

FORMS  OF  LAND. 

Coast  Lines. — The  maps  show  us  that  there  are  great  dif- 
ferences in  the  coast  lines  of  continents.  Some  continents  have 
several  large  peninsulas  and  are  deeply  indented  by  gulfs,  bays, 
or  seas,  while  others  have  regular  coasts  with  scarcely  a  pro- 
jection or  an  indentation  worthy  of  note. 

Irregular  coasts  furnish  many  harbors;  regular  coasts,  but 
few.  The  arms  of  t)ie  sea,  stretching  far  into  the  land,  are  so 
many  water-roads  over  which  ships  may  pass  to  carry  away 
what  people  have  to  sell,  and  to  bring  back  the  products  of 
other  lands. 

The  sea,  penetrating  the  land  at  many  points,  changes  the 
climate  of  a  country. 

This  is  because  water  is  warmed  by  the  sun  much  more  slowly  than  land, 
and  in  hot  weather  remains  considerably  cooler,  lowering  the  summer  tempera- 
ture of  regions  near  the  sea.  On  the  other  hand,  water  parts  with  its  heat 
more  slowly  than  Land,  and  remains  warmer  in  winter,  tempering  the  winds 
which  blow  from  the  sea. 

For  these  reasons  countries  near  the  sea  are  usually  cooler  in  summer  and 
milder  in  winter  than  those  far  inland.  Then,  again,  moisture,  or  vapor,  is 
always  rising  from  the  water,  and  the  air  is  more  moist,  and  rain  usually  falls 
more  freely  along  the  coast  than  elsewhere,  affecting  plant  and  animal  life  and 
even  the  occupations  of  men. 

From  all  this  we  learn  that  the  close  observation  of  coast 
lines  enables  us  to  determine  which  continents  or  countries  have 
natural  advantages  for  trade,  and  whether  the  climate  is  proba- 
bly affected  by  nearness  to  the  ocean  or  other  great  bodies  of 
water. 

Lowlands  and  Highlands.— All  lands  may  be  classified 
as  lowlands  or  highlands.  Lowlands  have  an  elevation  of  less 
than  1,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Highlands  have  an  elevation 
of  1,000  feet  or  more.     They  include  plateaus  and  mountains. 

Plains.  — N'early  one-half  of  the  surface  of  the  continents 

consists  of  low  and  level  or  gently  rolling  lands.      If  covered 

with  herbage,  but  mainly  destitute  of  trees,  they  are  called 

prairies,  llanos,  pampas  or  steppes.     The  wooded  plains  of  the 

Amazon  are  called  selvas,  and  the  barren  plains  of  the  Old 

World,  deserts. 

Some  plains  once  formed  the  floor  or  bottom  of  the  sea;  others  are  com- 
posed of  materials  brought  from  higher  lands  by  the  rains  and  streams.    Such 


are  called  alluvial,  and  they  are  among  the  richest  lands  in  the  world.     The 
lower  valley  of  the  Mississippi  is  an  alluvial  plain. 

Plateaus. — The  name  plateau,  or  table-land,  is  usually  given 
to  surface  elevations  above  1,000  feet.  They  are  sometimes 
very  level,  but  are  often  covered  with  hills  or  even  mountains. 
Some  of  the  most  noted  plateaus  are  bordered  with  lofty  moun- 
tain ranges;  others  descend  to  the  lowlands  by  successive  benches 
or  tables;  and,  others  still,  slope  very  gradually  to  lower  plains. 

Plateaus  with  their  accompanying  mountains  form  the  back- 
bone of  almost  every  continent,  determine  its  general  shape, 
and  give  direction  to  its  streams. 

Mountains. — Mountains  are  usually  long,  high  ridges  with 
peaks  rising  from  them  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw.  Though  the 
peaks  seem  to  the  eye  to  be  separated,  they  are  joined  by  a 
common  ridge,  extending  to  half  or  two-thirds  of  their  height. 
Such  a  ridge  with  its  peaks  is  called  a  mountain  chain.  The 
notches,  between  the  peaks,  are  passes,  from  which  valleys  lead 
down  the  slopes,  and  in  which  streams  often  have  their  begin- 
nings. There  are  usually  many  more  or  less  parallel  chains 
with  intervening  valleys,  the  whole  forming  a  mountain  system. 

From  the  highest  mountiiin  peaks  hundreds  of  other  peaks  may  sometimes 
be  seen  —  a  sea  of  mountain  tops  stretching  far  away.  From  many  mountain 
summits  one  may  see  clouds  and  hear  the  rolling  thunder  far  beneath  his  feet 
while  the  sun  is  shining  from  the  clear  sky  overhead. 

Formation  of  Mountains. —  It  is  supposed  that  the  earth  was  once  a  heated 
mass,  and  that  it  slowly  cooled.  The  surface  cooling  most  rapidly,  a  thin 
rock-crust  was  formed  about  a  vast  molten  center  and  resting  upon  it,  as  ice 

rests  upon  water.  But  the  cooling  pro- 
cess went  on  until  the  inclosed  heated 
mass  shrank  away  from  its  rock  cov- 
er, leaving  it  too  large.  Portions  of 
the  cover  then  bent  downward,  fonn- 
ing  wrinkles,  or  ridges  and  hollows, 
like  those  seen  in  the  figure.  These 
ridges  and  hollows  are  mountains  and 
\  alleys.  When  first  formed  they  were 
I II it  just  as  we  see  them  to-day,  be- 
(  ause  their  original  shapes  have  been 
rhanged  by  the  water,  the  wind,  the 
earthquake  and  the  frost,  which  have 
wrought  for  long,  long  ages. 

The  oldest,    but  not  the  loftiest, 
mountains  were  probably  formed  in 
this  manner.    Among  such  are  the  Ap- 
palachian, in  the  United  States,  and  the  Jura,  in  Switzerland. 

Many  mountains  were  formed  by  upheaval.  An  internal  force  like  that 
which  throws  vast  quantities  of  rock  and  melted  matter  from  volcanoes,  and 
causes  earthquakes,  lifted  and  fractured  the  strata  forming  the  earth's  crust, 
leaving  their  edges  upturned.  Such  mountains  have  a  wilder  and  more  rugged 
aspect  than  those  formed  by  folds.  They  have  many  bare  peaks,  deep  gorges, 
frightful  precipices,  and  dark  valleys.  The  Uocky  Mountains  and  Swiss  Alps 
are  of  this  class. 

In  examining  the  upturned,  broken  strata,  we  find  some  rocks,  such  as  the 
granite,  that  were  formed  of  melted  matter,  and  others,  such  as  limestone,  that 
were  formed  of  sediment  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  The  former  are  called 
igneous,  the  latter,  sedimentary.  The  sedimentary  rocks  contain  the  forms  of 
plants  and  animals  that  lived,  nobody  knows  how  long  ago.  This  shows  that 
the  sea  once  spread  over  what  are  now  continents,  and  that  multitudes  of  crea- 
tures found  a  home  in  its  waters  "before  the  mountains  were  brought  forth." 

Volcanoes. — A  volcano  usually  takes  the  form  of  a  mound 
or  a  cone,  and  is  composed  of  material  thrown  up  from  the 
interior  of  the  earth.  Either  upon  the  summit  or  upon  the 
slopes  is  a  great  hollow  or  depression  like  a  bowl  which  is 
called  the  crater.  Through  holes  in  the  bottom  or  sides  of 
the  crater,  lava,  stones,  ashes,  water,  and  steam  are  forced;  some- 
times with  great  violence  and  with  deafening  noise.  The  dis- 
charge from  a  volcano  is  called  an  eruption.  Eruptions  may 
occur  at  short  periods  or  at  intervals  of  years  or  even  cen- 
turies. 

During  an  eruption  the  mountain  is  sometimes  shaken  to  its  foundations; 
clouds  of  vapor,  ashes  or  pulverized  lava  fill  the  air  and  vivid  lightnings  play 
around  the  mountain  top.  In  the  night,  the  sky,  far  and  wide,  reflects  the 
glow  as  of  a  great  conflagration;  and  the  red-hot  rocks  and  huge  masses  of  lava, 


FOLDED  STRATA, 


USES  OP  MOUNTAINS— VALLEYS. 


13 


thrown  thousands  of  feet  into  the  air,  add  to  the  awful  grandeur  of  the  scene. 
Villages  and  cities  are  sometimes  buried  by  a  deluge  of  ashes  and  lava. 

Volcanoes  are  of  all  heights,  from  cones  that  do  not  reach 

the  surface  of  the  sea,  to  Bahama,  in  Bolivia,  23,000  feet  above 

it.     The  number  of  volcanoes,  active  and  extinct,  is  estimated 

at  600  to  700,  nearly  400  of  which  are  on  the  coasts  and  islands 

bordering  the  Pacific  Ocean,  girdling  it  with  a  belt  of  burning 

mountains. 


CLOUDS  FORMING  ABOUT  A  MOUNTAIN  PKAK. 

Uses  of  Mountains. — High  mountains  condense  the  mois- 
ture of  the  atmosphere  into  rain  or  snow  which  reappears  along 
their  sides  in  countless  springs  that  flow  down  the  slopes  in 
brooks  and  rivers. 

Mountain  ranges  generally  form  the  parting  ground  or  water- 
shed between  streams  flowing  in  opposite  directions  to  water 
different  regions.  They  also  give  variety  to  the  surface,  pro- 
moting drainage  and  preventing  the  earth  from  becoming  a 
sodden  mass  incapable  of  cultivation. 

Mountains,  like  mighty  walls,  arrest  or  change  the  course 
of  winds.  They  shut  out  the  cold  that  comes  from  the  icy 
north;  check  moist  winds  that  sweep  from  the  sea  and  hot 
winds  from  the  desert. 

Mountains  are  also  vast  store-houses  of  iron,  silver,  gold, 
coal,  and  other  minerals.  Their  sides  are  usually  clothed  with 
valuable  timber,  and  their  lower  slopes  and  foothills  furnish 
rich  pasturage.  They  sometimes  form  the  boundaries  of  coun- 
tries, keeping  enemies  apart,  furnishing  refuge  for  the  weak, 
and  offering  health  and  freedom  to  those  who  seek  homes  among 
them. 

Glaciers. — In  some  mountain  valleys,  the  snow  accumulates,  year  after  year, 
until  it  is  very  deep,  and  the  pressure  is  so  great  that  the  lower  portion  be- 
comes solid  ice.  This  mass,  which  is  often  many  miles  in  length,  moves  very 
slowly  down  the  valley,  carrying  rocks  and  soil  which  it  loosens  from  the  sides 
of  the  mountain.  The  lower  end  of  this  ice  river,  called  a  glacier,  on  reaching 
the  warmer  and  broader  valley  below,  is  melted  by  the  sun,  the  water  forming 
numerous  rivulets  which  rush  and  roar  through  ice  crevices,  to  unite  in  the 
valley  below.  The  rocks  are  dropped  at  the  end  of  the  gUicier  and  lie  in  ridges 
across  the  valley. 

While  the  foot  of  the  glacier  is  thus  wasting  slowly  away,  its  high  source  is 
receiving  fresh  supplies  of  falling  snow  by  which  the  ice  stream  is  ever  renewed 
and  moves  on,  age  after  age. 

A  glacier  moves  but  a  few  yards  during  a  year  and  its  motion  is  so  very 
slow  that  it  appears  to  be  standing  still.  It  is  only  by  noticing,  from  time  to 
time,  the  relative  positions  of  objects  on  the  glacier  and  at  the  sides,  that  a 
movement  can  be  detected. 

The  immense  glaciers  of  Greenland  project  from  its  valleys  into  the  sea, 
forming  icebergs  that  are  carried  by  ocean  currents  far  out  across  the  track  of 
ships. 


Valleys. — Every  mountain  chain  or  range  has  its  valleys. 
Those  which  separate  the  ridges  are  called  longitudinal;  and 
those  which  extend  across  the  ridges,  dividing  them  into  peaks 
or  independent  mountains,  are  termed  transverse.  The  longi- 
tudinal valleys  were  formed  by  the  folding  of  the  earth's  crust 
at  the  time  the  mountains  were  upheaved;  transverse  valleys 
were  originally,  in  many  instances,  nothing  but  cracks  or  clefts 
in  the  rocks  which  formed  the  ridges. 

These  cracks,  and  the  hollows,  or  longitudinal  vallejrs,  were  gradually 
widened  by  running  water,  from  the  rain,  from  melting  snow  or  springs.  The 
frost,  too,  helped  on  the  work  of  widening  by  putting  in  its  wedges  of  ice  to 
break  and  crumble  the  rock.  In  ten  thousjind  years  the  crack  had  become  a 
narrow  gorge;  in  a  hundred  thousand,  the  gorge  had  widened  into  a  narrow 
valley,  and  the  longitudinal  valley  had  become  broader,  deeper,  and  its  slopes 
less  rugged.     This  work  of  the  water  and  the  frost  is  still  going  on. 

Valleys  stretching  across  plains  and  plateaus  have  been  formed  in  the  same 
manner  as  channels  are  cut  across  roads  and  fields  during  the  summer  shower, 
only  in  the  case  of  the  greater  valleys,  the  work  goes  on  more  slowly. 

The  canons  of  the  Colorado  River  are  wonderful  instances  of  valleys  of  this 
kind.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  years  must  have  been  required  for  the  water 
to  cut  those  channels  in  the  rock  that  forms  this  plateau. 

Uses  of  Valleys. — Transverse  valleys  make  it  possible  to 
cross  lofty  ranges.  They  are  passes  where  highways  and  rail- 
ways are  constructed,  and  through  which  the  mule,  the  llama,  or 
the  yak  train  finds  it  way.  Valleys  open  up  the  mountains  so 
that  their  mineral  wealth  may  be  secured,  and  they  afford  dwell- 
ing places  for  vast  numbers  of  men. 

Influence  of  Elevation.  —  The  surface  of  the  earth  is 
warmed  by  the  sun,  and  gives  off  or  radiates  its  heat  to  the 
atmosphere  which  receives  very  little  from  the  sun's  rays  as 
they  pass  through  it.  Por  this  reason  the  air  near  the  earth's 
surface  is  warmer  than  that  which  is  high  above.  Those  who 
ascend  in  a  balloon  find  the  temperature  cooler  and  cooler  as 
they  rise. 

The  atmospheric  covering  of  the  earth,  like  the  covering  we 
place  over  us  at  night,  serves  to  keep  the  heat  in,  and  the 


VEGETATION  AT  DIFFERENT  ELEVATIONS. 


thicker  the  covering,  or  the  deeper  the  atmosphere,  especially 
when  moist,  the  more  slowly  is  the  earth  cooled.    Prom  this  it 


14 


INFLTJENCE  OF  SLOPE— FOEMS  OF  WATEE. 


follows  that  places  high  above  the  sea  have  a  cooler  temperature 
than  those  in  the  same  latitude  near  the  sea-level. 

On  the  low  plains  of  the  Torrid  Zone,  up  to  an  elevation  of  4,000  feet,  the 
various  species  of  palm  and  the  balsams  grow  with  the  greatest  luxuriance. 

At  an  altitude  of  4,000  to  8,000  feet  the  fig  family,  and  the  tree  ferns,  whose 
thick  trunks  and  delicate  lace-like  foliage  stand  out  against  the  clear  blue  sky, 
are  the  most  common  trees.  In  this  belt,  also,  are  found  those  plants  and  trees 
common  to  the  Warm  Temperate  Zone,  such  as  the  cactus,  the  agave,  and  the 
orange. 

From  8,000  to  10,000  feet  occur  those  families  of  deciduous  trees  composing 
the  forests  of  the  Temperate  Zones,  together  with  wheat,  com,  and  other  plants 
raised  in  our  fields. 

Above  10,000  feet  we  find  the  vegetation  peculiar  to  the  Cold  Temperate  and 
the  Frigid  Zones.  Evergreens,  grasses,  dwarf  trees,  and  shrubs,  Alpine  flower- 
ing plants,  mos.ses,  and  lichens  clinging  to  the  rocks,  occur  in  succession,  and 
above  these,  fields  of  perpetual  snow. 

Thus,  in  passing  from  the  level  of  the  sea  in  the  Torrid  Zone  to  an  elevation 
of  15,000  to  17,000  feet,  or  about  three  miles,  every  zone  of  vegetation  is  seen. 
We  journey  from  the  tropics  to  the  poles,  from  the  home  of  the  palm  to  the 
realms  of  ice. 

To  ascend  350  feet  gives  the  same  change  In  temperature  as  to  travel  one 
degree  north.  In  other  words,  places  having  an  elevation  of  700  feet  are  as 
cool  as  other  places  at  the  sea-level  two  degrees  further  north,  if  in  the  North- 
ern Hemisphere,  and  two  degrees  further  south,  if  in  the  Southern. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  belts  of  vegetiition  are  so  clearly  marked 
that  we  can  see  just  where  one  leaves  off  and  another  begins.  On  the  contrary, 
as  with  the  zones,  one  belt  gradually  merges  into  another. 

From  this  it  will  appear  that  the  elevation,  as  well  as  the  latitude,  of  a  coun- 
try must  be  known  in  order  that  we  may  determine  the  character  of  its  cli- 
mate, its  plant  and  animal  life,  the  occupations  and  mode  of  life  of  its  people, 
who  depend  on  what  the  land  produces. 

The  Influence  of  Slope. — Southern  slopes  are  warmer  than 

northern.     On  southern  slopes  the  ground  first  becomes  bare 

in  spring.     Here  we  seek  early  flowers,   and  here,   too,   the 

grain  is  first  ready  for  the  sickle.     On  northern  slopes,  in  our 

hemisphere,  the  sun's  i^ays  fall  obliquely  and  the  snow-banks 

linger  till  late  in  spring. 

In  our  study  of  the  continents  we  shall  find  that  large  portions  of  the 
earth's  surface  incline  to  the  north  or  to  the  south  and  that  the  climate  is  made 
cooler  or  warmer  by  the  slope. 

Some  plants  thrive  on  one  slope  that  cannot  grow  on  another  in  the  same 
latitude.  In  some  countries  of  Europe  the  vine,  the  olive,  and  the  mulberry 
grow  only  on  slopes  that  receive  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  Slope  also  gives 
direction  and  force  to  streams. 


SNOW  LINE  OR  LIMIT   IN   THE  DIFFERENT  ZONE.S. 

It  is  a  curious  and  important  fact  that  there  is  a  gradual  slope  from  the  low 
plains  along  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  high  plateaus  in  the  Torrid  Zone.  Were 
the  most  elevated  portions  of  the  earth  situated  far  to  the  north,  or  even  in  the 
cooler  portions  of  the  Temperate  Zone,  they  would  be  rendered  uninhabitable  by 
man,  and  there  could  be  neither  plant  nor  animal  life  on  account  of  the  intense 
cold.  •• 

On  the  other  hand,  were  the  surface  of  the  earth  within  the  tropics  no  more 
elevated  than  the  great  northern  plain,  the  vegetation  would  be  luxuriant,  but 
man  could  scarcely  live  in  a  region  of  such  inten.se  heat. 

As  it  now  is,  some  of  the  elevated  regions  in  the  Torrid  Zone  have  the  most 
delicious  climate.  They  are  lifted  above  the  fierce  heat  of  the  low  plains  and 
yet  never  have  the  snow  and  biting  frost  of  the  northern  winter.  These  pla- 
teaus and  moirntain  valleys  are,  so  to  speak,  pieces  of  the  Temperate  Zone 
propped  up  on  rock  pillars  right  under  the  equatorial  sun.  We  shall  find  such 
regions  in  South  America  and  in  Asia^ 

FORMS  OF  WATER. 

Water  has  three  forms,  and  a  change  of  temperature  causes 
it  to  pass  from  one  of  these  forms  to  another.  As  a  liquid, 
it  falls  in  the  summer  shower,  gurgles  in  the  wayside  spring, 
sparkles  in  the  moss-covered  bucket,  moves  in  the  flowing 
river,  and  spreads  in  the  boundless  sea. 

"When  chilled  by  the  cold  it  becomes  a  solid;  descends  in 
the  gentle  snow  or  rattling  hail,  incrusts  the  lakes  and  streams, 
forms  glaciers  in  mountain  valleys,  and  ice  hills  in  the  polar 
regions. 


Under  the  influence  of  heat  it  takes  the  form  of  vapor, 
ascends  from  the  land  and  from  the  sea,  filling  the  atmos- 
phere with  invisible  "water  dust"  or  atoms  to  be  changed  to 
clouds  and  to  rain. 

The  Sea. — The  sea  is  the  great  reservoir  from  whose 'sur- 
face water,  as  vapor,  is  always  ascending.  The  vapor  is  borne 
by  the  winds  over  the  continents  to  fall  as  rain  or  snow.  A 
portion  of  the  rain  water  evaporates  in  the  air  and  another 
sinks  into  the  ground,  through  which  it  soaks  to  form  springs 
or  to  feed  the  sheets  of  water  that  supply  our  welLs.  A  large 
portion  flows  over  the  surface  and  finds  its  way  into  brooks, 
which  unite  to  form  rivers  that  drain  the  land  into  the  sea. 

Lakes. —  Lakes  are  bodies  of  water  in  the  hollows  or  ba- 
sins of  the  land.  They  are  supplied  by  streams,  by  springs, 
or  by  rain  or  snow  that  falls  on  the  surrounding  slopes. 

Uses  of  Lakes. — Lakes,  when  large  or  numerous,  serve  to 
modify  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  They  also  give  mois- 
ture to  the  air  and,  in  some  degree,  increase  the  fall  of  rain. 
Lakes  supply  vast  numbers  of  fish  and  water-fowl,  that  serve 
as  food.  Large  lakes  are  often  navigable,  and  great  cities  are 
built  on  their  shores  and  enriched  by  traffic  on  their  waters. 

Rivers. — Water  always  seeks  the  lowest  places,  and  a  thou- 
cand  rills  and  brooks  are  gathered  to  form  a  great  river  that 
fiows  on  the  line  of  lowest  level  down  a  long  slope  to  the  sea. 

All  the  land  drained  by  a  river  and  its  branches  is  called 
a  river  basin,  and  the  highest  land  between  two  or  more  ba- 
sins from  which  streams  flow  in  opposite  directions  is  called 
a  water-shed.  A  water-shed  may  be  a  mountain  range,  a  ridge 
of  hills,  or  simply  a  "height  of  land."  A  large  river  and  its 
tributaries  is  often  called  a  river  system,  and  we  sometimes 
speak  of  all  the  rivers  flowing  into  an  ocean  as  the  Atlantic 
system,  or  the  Arctic  system,  etc. 

Uses  of  Rivers. —  Without  streams  to  drain  the  land,  the 
earth  would  be  so  wet  that  neither  grains  nor  fruits  could 
grow,  and  man  could  not  find  a  home  upon  the  earth.  Streams 
supply  him  with  pure  water,  enrich  his  fields,  drive  his  ma- 
chinery, and  form  highways  for  travel  and  trade.  The  most 
fruitful  soil  is  found  on  the  borders  of  rivers,  and  here  are 
built  many  of  the  largest  towns. 

THE  ATMOSPHERE. 

We  live  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  ocean  of  air,  stretching  over 
sea  and  land,  and  receiving  heat  and  moisture  from  both,  as 
they  are  generated  by  the  sun.  The  winds  carry  the  invisible 
vapors  which  the  air  receives  from  the  sea  over  the  parched 
earth  to  fertilize  the  fields.  Plants,  animals,  and  men  are  alike 
dependent  on  the  heat  and  the  moisture  which  the  air  holds. 
Without  these  there  could  be  no  green  meadows,  no  fields  of 
waving  grain,  no  blooming  gardens,  nor  animals,  nor  men. 
Were  the  busy  winds  to  sleep  the  broad  continents  would  be- 
come barren,  lifeless  deserts. 

We  know  how  our  climate  is  affected  by  the  winds.  The  south  wind 
brings  us  warm  weather  and  rain.  The  north  wind  brings  colder  weather  and 
clearer  skies.  All  countries  have  their  prevailing  winds,  and  we  must  know 
something  about  them  before  we  can  tell  the  amount  of  heat  and  moisture  the 
countries  receive. 

Queries. — In  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  what  slopes  are  warmest?  Why? 
In  how  many  ways  does  water  act  to  change  the  surface  of  the  earth?  How 
does  the  frost  act  to  change  the  form  of  mountains?  What  forces  are  operating 
to  level  all  the  hills  and  mountains?  What  force  is  building  up  mountains? 
As  the  rivers  flow  into  the  sea,  why  does  it  not  become  full  and  overflow  the  land? 


NORTH    AMERICA. 

(Phybical.) 


MAP  STUDIES. 


Key  to  Physical  Maps. —  Very  low  plains  are  indicated  by  the  darkest 
shade,  and  higher  plains  by  lighter  shades.  Plateaus  are  still  lighter  than 
plains,  the  highest  being  nearly  white.  Mountains  are  so  drawn  as  to  seem  to 
stand  up  from  the  page,  the  loftiest  ranges  appearing  most  elevated. 

General  Questions. — Which  coast  is  most  irregular?  What  is  the  general 
direction  of  each  coa.st?  Point  out  the  lowest  coast.  Which  coa.st  is  bordered 
by  the  greatest  number  of  islands?    Name  the  largest  islands. 

See  map,  page  16. 

What  portions  of  the  continent  are  most  mountainous  ?  Place  a  ruler  over 
the  level  portion  of  the  continent.  In  crossing  the  continent  in  the  latitude 
of  St.  Louis,  how  many  great  slopes  are  found  ?  What  highlands  would  be 
crossed  ?  Where  would  we  cross  the  lowest  portion  of  the  Great  Central  Plain  ? 
In  a  journey  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  overland  to  the  month  of  the  Mackenzie 
River,  where  would  we  find  the  highest  land,  or  water-shed  ? 

What  portion  of  the  continent  contains  a  large  number  of  great  lakes? 
How  many  of  these  lakes  may  be  touched  by  a  single  straight  line  ?  How  may 
the  slope  of  a  country  be  determined?  Point  out  the  principal  slopes  of  the 
continent.     Into  wliat  ocean  is  the  greater  portion  of  the  continent  drained  ? 

Use  the  scale  of  tBe  map  to  determine  the  greatest  length  and  the  greatest 
width  of  the  continent.  What  is  the  distance  from  San  Francisco  to  New  York? 
From  New  Orleans  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie?  What  is  the  length  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico?    Of  Hudson  Bay? 

In  what  zones  does  the  continent  lie? 
tion  of  it? 


What  zone  includes  the  greater  por- 


EXEECISES.— Point  out  and  describe  the  coast  waters,  peninsulas, 
Islands,  highland  regions,  mountains,  Great  Central  Plain,  Great  Basin, 
lakes,  and  rivers. 

Sketch  the  coasts,  mountain  ranges,  lakes,  and  great  rivers.  Draw 
reUef  diagrams  as  directed  by  the  teacher. 

To  the  Teacher. —  In  describing  the  coast  waters,  penin- 
sulas, islands,  etc.,  as  indicated  above,  for  the  first  time,  the 
pupil  may  be  allowed  to  have  the  map  before  him.  His  reci- 
tation should  consist  in  stating,  in  his  own  language,  just  what 
the  map  says  to  him. 

Ask  him  to  look  out  of  the  window  and  describe  some  of 
the  features  of  the  landscape.    He  sees  a  lake,  a  stream,  a 


hill,  etc.,  and  says:  "Clear  Lake  is  long  and  narrow,  and  is 
surrounded  by  high  prairie  with  groves  here  and  there.  A 
rocky  island  is  near  the  middle  of  the  lake.  Trout  Brook, 
the  outlet  of  the  lake,  flows  through  a  beautiful  valley  near 
which  our  school-house  stands.  Pilot  Knob,  a  round  hill,  with 
a  flat  top,  is  not  far  from  the  lake." 

Tour  pupil  has  given  a  fine  recitation  in  geography  with- 
out memorizing  a  word.  He  saw  and  then  described  in  his 
own  language.  Place  the  map  in  his  hands  and  teach  him 
to  observe  and  describe  in  the  same  manner.  After  a  little 
practice  he  may  be  expected  to  interpret  the  map  somewhat 
as  follows: 

The  coasts  of  North  America  are  washed  by  three  oceans — the  Pacific  on 
the  west,  the  Atlantic  on  the  east,  and  the  Arctic  on  the  north. 

The  eastern  coast  is  quite  irregular.  From  New  York  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  it  is  low.  The  general  direction  of  the  coast  is  northeast  and  south- 
west. 

Florida  is  a  long,  low  peninsula.  It  lies  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  West  Indies  are  between  North  and  South  America.  They  are  sur- 
rounded by  the  Atlantic,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Cuba,  Hayti, 
Porto  Rico,  and  Jamaica  are  the  largest  of  the  group.  Their  position  gives 
them  a  warm  climate. 

The  Pacific  Highland  region  is  in  the  western  part  of  the  continent,  extend- 
ing its  entire  length.     It  is  a  mountainous  section. 

The  Rocky  Mountains  extend  north  and  south  through  the  whole  length  of 
the  continent.  The  shading  and  the  rivers  show  that  they  have  a  long  eastern 
slope  to  the  Mississippi.     In  Mexico,  the  chief  range  is  called  the  Sierra  Madre. 

The  Great  Central  Plain  extends  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  It  has  the  Pacific  Highlands  on  the  west,  the  Atlantic  Highlands  on 
the  east.  The  southern  portion  is  drained  by  the  Mississippi  and  its  tribu- 
taries; the  northern,  by  the  Mackenzie  and  other  large  streams. 

The  Mackenzie  rises  in  the  Pacific  Highlands.  Its  course  is  northwesterly 
into  the  Arctic  Ocean  which  it  reaches  through  several  channels.  The  waters 
of  Lakes  Athabasca,  Great  Slave,  and  Great  Bear  find  their  way  to  the  sea 
through  this  river. 

Superior  is  the  largest  lake  in  North  America.  It  is  in  the  east  central  jwrt 
of  the  continent  and  is  one  of  five  great  lakes  drained  by  the  St.  Lavn-ence. 

These  examples  are  not  introduced  as  models  to  be  followed  to  the  letter. 
Parrot  work  should  be  avoided.  At  first,  the  pupil  will  see  little  and  say  little. 
Encourage  him  to  observe,  to  think,  and  to  express  his  thonghts,  and  he  will 
soon  see  more,  think  better,  and  recite  better. 


/CHICAGO  ,'  ^  >,  .'     ■'       ^'i 

J 


Y 


i 


-.^'^ts 


-s  ^  LoE  s" 


PHYSICAL  MAP  OF 

NORTH  AMERICA 


"it  MEWCO   ■  <Jl(ft 


« I  * 


p^' 


Scale  of  Miles 
0      100    Sbo      '      So      '       600      '      800      '     1000 


./,/^^<.^ 


^/^^^ 


^^y 


DESCEIPTIOI^— THE  PACIFIC  HIGHLANDS. 


17 


DESCRIPTION. 

Size. — North  America  is  more  than  3,000  miles  in  width 
and  about  4,800  miles  in  length.  Its  northern  shores  are  cov- 
ered with  the  snow  and  ice  of  the  polar  regions,  while  its 
countries  in  the  south  enjoy  the  green  and  the  bloom  of  per- 
petual summer. 

Coasts. — On  the  north,  its  coast  is  deeply  cut  by  bays,  but 
the  whole  region  is  a  frozen  land  which  can  never  be  opened 
to  commerce.  On  the 
east  and  south  are  gulfs, 
bays,  and  sounds,  afford- 
ing excellent  harbors, 
and  offering  great  ad- 
vantages for  trade  with 
all  parts  of  the  world. 
The  Pacific  coast  is  more 
regular,  San  Francisco 
Bay  and  Puget  Sound 
being  the  chief  indenta- 
tions. In  either  of  these 
the  navies  of  the  world 
might  ride  in  safety. 

Surface. — -The  sur- 
face consists  of  a  vast 
highland  region  on  the 
west,  a  smaller  highland 
region  on  the  east,  and 
a  great  central  plain. 

The   Pacific   High- 
lands.—  The    western 
portion  of  the  continent 
is   a  grand   plateau, 
stretching  from  North- 
ern Alaska  to  Southern 
Mexico,  and  varying  in 
width  from  300  to  1,000 
miles.     It  has  a  long  and 
gradual  slope  eastward 
to  the  Mississippi,  and 
a  short  and  more  abrupt 
slope  westward  to  the  Pacific;  and 
increases  in  elevation  from  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  where  it  is  800  feet,  to  the 
Mexican  Plateau  which  is  about  8,500 
feet  above  the  sea  level  at  its  highest 
part. 

Standing  on  this  plateau  are  mighty 
ridges,  known  as  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, the  Sierra  Madre,  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  Cascade,  and 
the  Coast  ranges,  with  hundreds  of  shorter  and  generally  parallel 
ranges  bearing  different  names. 

From  the  crests  of  these  ridges  rise  almost  numberless  peaks, 

many  of  them  from  10,000  to  15,000,  and  a  few  from  17,000  to 

19,500  feet  above  the  sea,  or  about  one-half  these  elevations 

above  the  ridges  themselves. 

The  "Mount  of  the  Holy  Cross"  Is  a  peak  of  the  Sierra  Madre  range, 
which  is  over  14,000  feet  iu  altitude.     Ou  its  eastern  fiice  a  cross  of  snow 


glitters  in  the  sun.  The  cross  is  formed  by  the  snow  lying  in  two  crevices,  at 
right  angles,  on  the  almost  perpendicular  lace  of  the  mountain.  Its  long  ami 
is  fully  1,000  feet  in  length. 

The  mountain  ranges,  like  walls,  divide  the  immense  plateau 

from  which  they  rise  into  smaller  plateaus,  parks,  basins,  and 

numbei'less  valleys,  having  different  forms,   elevations,   soils, 

climates,  and  productions.     Some  of  these  divisions  are  d&serts, 

others  are  covered  with  scanty  herbage,  and  others  still  are 

extremely  productive. 

All  the  ranges  of  North  America,  from  the  western  border  of  the  Great 
Central  Plain  to  the  Pacific,  were  once  called  "Stony  Mountains."  Few 
mountain  regions  in  the  world  have  so  great  a  variety  of  scenery  or  are  so 
rocky. 

There  are  numberless  peaks,  whose  crowns  of  snow  are  seen  tlirough  the 
clear  air;  wild  crags  beyond  tlie  reach  of  the  mountsiin  goat;  cliasms  where  the 
sun's  rays  never  come;  precipices  wliose  granite  walls  rise  thousands  of  feet, 
without  a  shrub;  caiions  with  rushing  streams  far  do^vn  between  their  jaws  of 
rock;  rock-strewn,  treeless  valleys,  and  bare,  wind-swept  hills. 

Besides  th&se  wpnders  there  are  innumerable  waterfalls, 

hot  springs,  geysers,  and  glaciers. 

Geysers. — In  the  Yellowstone  National  Park  are  many 

geysers  throwing  columns  of  water  and  spray  from  20  to  200 

feet  into  the  air.  Some 
of  the  geysers  spout  at 
intervals  of  a  few  mo- 
ments; others  after  in- 
tervals of  hours,  days, 
weeks,  or  even  months. 

In  the  Upper  Gey.ser  Basin 
are  no  le.ss  than  eighteen  of 
these  wonders.  The  Grand 
Geyser  (see  page  15)  has 
no  raised  cone,  only  a  basin, 
sunk  below  the  general  level, 
1  like  that  of  a  quiet  spring,  52 
feet  in  diameter.  Inthecenter 
is  the  geyser  tube  which  meas- 
ures 2  by  4  feet.  The  greatest 
measured  height  of  the  erup- 
tion is  173  feet.  The  mass  of 
water  carried  up  is  enormous, 
while  through  this  main  mass 
a  smaller  colunm  shoots,  at 
intervals,  to  a  much  greater 
height.  After  the  water  sinks 
from  the  sight,  subterranean 
thunderoftenshakes  theearth, 
filling  the  timid  visitor  with 
terror. 

Hot  Springs.— The 
innumerable  hot  springs 
are  of  all  sizes,  from  a 
few  inches  across  to  acres 
of  hot  water;  and  of  all 
temperatures  from  tepid 
to  boiling.  The  waters 
from  some  of  these 
springs  have  covered 
whole  valleys  with  a 
hard,  white,  glistening 
crust. 

On  approaching  the  "White  Mountain  springs  the  visitor  beholds  a  hill  1,000 
feet  in  height,  of  dazzling  wliiteness,  with  its  sides  striped  with  bands  of  vivid 
red  and  yellow.  This  hill  is  the  work  of  springs  which  buret  forth  upon  its 
summit  and  pour  their  water  down  from  basin  to  basin  on  its  sides.  The  steep 
sides  of  the  hill  are  ornamented  by  a  series  of  semicircular  basins  with  margins 
varying  in  height  from  a  few  inches  to  six  or  eight  feet,  and  beautifully  scal- 
loped and  ornamented  with  a  kind  of  bead  work. 

On  the  snow-white  sides  of  the  mountain  is  every  shade  of  scarlet,  green, 
and  yellow,  as  brilliant  as  the  brightest  aniline  dyes.  The  water  is  so  trans- 
parent that  one  can  see  to  the  very  lx)ttom  of  the  deepest  springs;  and,  as  it 
grows  cooler  with  each  circle  of  springs,  toward  the  bottom,  the  bather  may 
choose  the  temperature  that  suits  him  best.* 

•  Consult  Stanford's  Compendium  of  Geography  and  Travel.— iVortA  Ameriea. 


GBAKD  VIEWS  ON   LAND  AND  SEA. 


18 


TOSEMITE  VALLEY— THE  ATLANTIC  HIGHLANDS. 


Yosemite  Valley.— In  the  heart  of  the  great  Sierra  Nevada 

range,   which,  at  this  point,  is  seventy  miles  across,   is  the 

Yosemite  Valley.     It  is  six  miles  long,  and  from  half  a  mile 

to  a  mile  wide,  and  sunken  nearly  a  mile  below  the  surface 

of  the  region  around. 

The  valley  is  bordered  by  cliffs  towering  above  it  from  3,000  to  4,000  feet, 
upon  which  are  columns,  spires,  and  arches  of  wondrous  structure.  Leaping 
over  its  walls  are  several  streams.  The  Yosemite  plunges  from  the  top  of  the 
cliff,  1,500  feet  at  a  single  bound,  then  descends  alwut  700  feet  in  cascades, 
then  leaps  400  feet  to  the  bottom  of  the  valley,  where  it  moves  on,  a  quiet 
stream.  The  Bridal  Veil  Fall  is  800  feet,  the  Vernal  Fall,  400  feet,  and  the 
Nevada  Fall,  600  feet. 

The  Great  Basin. — Between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Wah- 

satch  ranges  is  a  vast  basin  containing  many  mountains,  and 

having  no  outlet  to  the  ocean.     Many  of  the  streams  are  lost 

in  the  thirsty  sands;  others  flow  into  salt  and  alkaline  lakes, 

whose  waters  escape  by  evaporation.     Mountain  ranges  divide 

the  Great  Basin  into  a  multitude  of  smaller  basins  or  valleys. 

Within  the  basin  is  Death  Valley— so  called  from  the  number  of  persons 
who  have  perished  there  from  thirst.  It  lies  between  two  ranges  of  mountains, 
rising  7,000  feet  above  its  surface,  and  there  is  not  a  drop  of  water  in  the  whole 
extent, — nothing  but  rock  and  sand,  save  scattered  cacti  and  stunted  sage  bushes. 
Few  have  succeeded  in  crossing  this  terrible  waste. 

Most  of  the  valleys  of  the  Great  Basin  are  utter  deserts,  but 

some,  watered  by  small  streams,  are  found  to  be  wonderfully 

fertile. 

Colorado  Plateau. — The  Colorado  Eiver  drains  a  country 

of  plateaus,  with  many  deep  canons  and  few  living  streams. 

Major  Powell,  of  the  Government  Survey,  says: 

"The  landscape  everywhere  away  from  the  river  is  of  rock, — clil6  of  rock, 
tables  of  rock,  plateaus  of  rock,  terraces  of  rock,  crags  of  rock,  ten  thousand 
strangely  carved  forms,  rock  everywhere,  and  no  vegetation,  no  soil,  no  land. 
*  *  *  We  must  not  think  of  piles  of  boulders,  or  heaps  of  fragments,  but  of 
a  whole  land  of  naked  rock  with  giant  forms  car\'ed  on  it;  cathedral-shaped 
buttes,  towering  hundreds  or  thousands  of  feet ;  cliffs  that  cannot  be  scaled,  and 
cafion  walls  that  make  the  river  sink  into  insignificance,  with  hollow  domes 
and  tall  pinnacles,  and  shafts  set  on  the  verge  overhead,  and  all  highly  colored — 
buff,  gray,  brown,  and  chocolate." 


SCENE  IN  MEXICO. 


Plateau  of  Mexico.— Mexico  is  a  plateau  6,000  to  8,500  feet 
above  the  sea,  with  lower  terraces  from  3,000  to  5,000  feet,  and 
a  narrow  belt  of"  lowlands  along  the  coasts.  The  mountains 
and  high  table-lands  are,  here  and  there,  cut  across  by  deep- 
walled  valleys  along  streams  extending  far  back  from  the  coasts. 

The  Mexicans  call  the  low  coast  lands  the  Tierra  Callientes,  or  hot  lands; 
the  middle  bench,  Tierra  Templada,  or  temperate  lands;  and  the  highest  bench, 
Tierra  Fria,  or  cold  lands.  Each  of  these  benches  has  a  climate  and  plants  pe- 
culiar to  itself 


From  the  plateau  tower  several  volcanoes,  one  of  which  is  the  mighty  cone 
of  Popocatapetl,  17,500  feet  in  height,  its  top  covered  with  snow,  and  occasion- 
ally sending  up  clouds  of  smoke.  Jorullo  on  the  central  table-lands,  and  a 
smaller  cone  near  Vera  Cruz,  are  among  the  most  active  volcanoes  of  modem 
times.     Jorullo  was  thrown  up  in  a  single  night  to  the  height  of  1,695  feet. 

Minerals.— The  chief  wealth  of  the  Pacific  Highland  region 
is  in  its  minerals,  which  are  as  abundant  and  varied  as  in  any 
other  part  of  the  earth.  Gold  and  silver  are  found  in  almost 
every  section  from  Northern  Alaska  to  the  Lsthmus  of  Panama. 
Besides  the  precious  metals  there  are  iron,  quicksilver,  copper, 
tin,  salt,  and  coal. 

The  Atlantic  Highlands.— This  region  consists  of  the  Ap- 
palachian system  of  mountains  and  the  highlands  of  Canada, 
north  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  In  the  United  States  there  is  a 
short  and  somewhat  rapid  slope  toward  the  Atlantic,  and  a 
long,  gradual  slope  to  the  Mississippi. 

The  Appalachian  system  is  made  up  of  many  nearly  parallel 
ridges  with  long,  fertile,  and  beautiful  valleys  between.  The 
mountains  with  their  intervening  valleys  cover  a  space  from  fifty 
to  one  hundred  miles  wide.  There  are  few  peaks  towering 
above  the  rounded  ridges  which  are  not  very  high,  and  are 
remarkable  for  their  regular  outlines.  Mt.  Washington  in  the 
north,  6,288  feet,  and  the  Black  Dome  in  the  south,  6,707  feet, 
are  the  most  noted.  The  Appalachian  system  has  different 
names.  There  are  the  White,  Green,  and  Adirondack  Moun- 
tains in  the  north;  the  Alleghanies  in  the  middle  portion;  the 
Blue  Eidge  and  the  Black  Mountains  in  the  south. 

Minerals. —  The  Atlantic  Highlands  contain  inexhaustible 
quantities  of  coal,  iron,  oil,  salt,  and  building  stone.  Gold, 
silver,  lead,  sulphur,  zinc,  and  nickel  are  found  in  different 
localities.  The  coal  fields  are  said  to  cover  60,000  square  miles. 
The  marble  and  granite  quarries  of  New  England  are  widely 
known. 

The  first  successful  use  of  anthracite  coal  was  in  1777,  when  it  was  mined 
at  Wilkesbarre,  Penn.,  and  burned  by  the  blacksmitlis  of  Carlisle.  As  late 
as  1814  it  was  sent  to  Philadelphia,  but  could  not  be  ignited,  and  the  authorities 
caused  it  to  be  broken  up  for  walks. 

In  1812,  some  wire  manufacturers  near  Philadelphia  purchased  a  small 
quantity  to  use  in  their  furnace.  One  of  the  owners  and  the  fireman  spent 
half  a  day  in  trying  to  get  it  to  bum.  At  noon  they  closed  their  furnace  and 
went  to  dinner  in  disgust  with  the  "stone  coal;"  but  on  returning,  they  were 
astonished  to  find  the  doors  red-hot  and  the  furnace  in  danger  of  melting. 

Only  350  tons  of  coal  were  consumed  in  the  whole  country 
in  1820.  It  is  now  used  in  all  civilized  lands,  and  millions  of 
tons  are  burned  annually. 

Great  Central  Plain.— From  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  through  the  heart  of  the  continent,  stretches  the 
Great  Central  Plain,  bordered  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific,  and 
on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  Highlands.  A  low  swell  called  the 
"Height  of  Land"  crosses  the  plain  near  the  middle,  form- 
ing two  great  slopes.  This  central  swell  has  an  elevation  of 
but  2,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  its  slopes  are  so  gentle  that 
one  might  travel  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  hardly  notice  the  difference  in  elevation. 

The  margin  of  the  Great  Central  Plain,  along  the  eastern 
base  of  the  Eocky  Mountains,  is  from  2,000  to  7,500  feet  above 
the  sea.  In  many  places  it  is  higher  than  the  ridges,  or  even 
the  peaks,  of  the  Atlantic  Highlands.  The  lowest  part  of  this 
region,  which,  in  the  United  States,  is  along  the  Mississippi,  is 
at  the  sea  level  on  the  gulf  coast,  400  feet  at  St.  Louis,  and  about 
1,680  feet  above,  at  the  source  of  the  Mississippi.  The  Great 
Central  Plain  includes  the  immense  prairies  of  the  United  States 
and  of  Canada.     The  surface  is  generally  level  or  undulating. 


NOETH  AMEEICA— LAKES  AND   EIVEES. 


19 


Minerals. — Immense  coal  fields  and  extensive  deposits  of 
iron,  lead,  copper,  silver,  and  salt  are  found  in  this  portion 
of  the  continent. 

The  Plains. — A  belt  stretching  along  the  base  of  the  Eocky 
Mountains,  forming  the  western  border  of  the  Great  Central 
Plain,  is  known  as  "'the  Plains."  The  plains  are  very  broad 
in  the  United  States  but  rapidly  narrow,  northward,  in  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada.  The  surface  is  monotonous,  rolling,  and  tree- 
less, resembling  the  ocean  in  its  long,  billowy  swells.  There 
are  no  more  landman-ks  to  guide  the  traveler  than  the  sailor 
finds  at  sea,  and  when  he  leaves  the  traveled  routes  he  must 
depend  on  his  compass,  unless  blue  ranges  or  snowy  peaks  loom 
above  his  western  horizon. 

The  southern  part  of  the  plains  is  called  the  Llano  Estacado,  or  staked 
plain,  so  named  by  the  Spaniards  because  the  few  water-holes  on  its  surface 
were  marked  by  stakes  stuck  in  tlie  ground  for  the  guidance  of  travelers.*  Bad 
Lands,  as  they  are  called,  cover  large  portions  of  the  plains  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  United  States.  On  these  the  rock  lying  ou  the  surface  is  soft  and  the 
elements  have  worn  it  into  the  forms  of  cliflfs,  turrets,  and  towers,  that  stand 
in  all  directions  over  the  plain,  giving  the  landscape  the  appearance  of  a  ruined 
city. 

Lakes  and  Rivers. — North  America  contains  the  largest 
fresh-water  lakes  and  some  of  the  longest  rivers  on  the  globe. 
The  Pacific  Highlands,  the  Atlantic  Highlands,  and  the  Height 
of  Land  are  the  great  water  partings  of  the  continent,  divid- 
ing its  surface  into  slopes,  each  with  mighty  streams  flowing 
to  the  sea. 

Down  the  Pacific  slope  roll  the  Colorado,  the  Columbia, 
the  Frazer,  and  the  Yukon.  The  northern  slope  of  the  Great 
Central  Plain  is  drained  by  the  Mackenzie,  the  Saskatchewan, 
and  other  rivers,  and  here  also  are  found  many  great  lakes. 
Through  the  heart  of  its  southern  slope  the  Mississippi  takes 
its  way,  its  branches  reaching  to  the  distant  highlands  east  and 
west,  and  draining  the  "Great  Basin."  The  principal  river  of 
the  eastern  slope  is  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  outlet  of  the  five 
great  lakes.  The  other  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  slope  are  much 
shorter,  but  most  of  them  furnish  water-power  to  cities  on  their 
banks. 

Just  west  of  Lake  Superior,  in  a  region  of  numberless  small  lakes,  are  the 
sources  of  three  rivers — the  St.  Lawrence,  flowing  to  the  Atlantic,  2,000  miles 
to  the  east;  the  Mississippi,  which  reaches  the  Gulf,  2,800  miles  to  the  south, 
and  the  Red  liiver,  flowing  to  Hudson  Bay,  1,500  miles  to  the  north. 

The  springs  that  form  the  sources  of  the  Colmubia  and  the  Mackenzie  are 
said  to  be  less  than  an  eighth  of  a  mile  apart. 

The  melting  snow  from  Union  Peak  in  the  Eocky  Mountains  forms  tribu- 
taries to  the  Columbia,  the  Colorado,  and  the  Missouri. 

Lakes  Superior,  Michigan,  Huron,  Eri«»,,  and  Ontario  are 
called  the  five  great  lakes.  Their  united  area  is  98,100  square 
miles.  With  the  St.  Lawrence  they  form  a  water-road  extend- 
ing nearly  half  way  across  the  continent. 

Lake  Superior,  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water  in  the  world, 
is  355  miles  long,  and  has  an  area  of  about  32,000  square 
miles.     Its  shores  are  rugged  and  picturesque. 

The  Columbia  is  the  largest  American  river  flowing  into 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  scenery  along  its  course  is  very  grand, 
especially  where  it  breaks  through  the  Cascade  range.  Here 
lofty  mountains  crowd  each  other,  and  clifife  of  curious  forms 
line  the  banks  of  the  stream,  often  rising  to  a  height  of  1,000 
feet.  The  tall  cliffs,  red,  gray,  and  black,  rise  in  groups  or 
shafts,  while  hundreds  of  feet  above  them  are  the  hill-tops 

•  Some  writers  state  that  the  name  comes  from  the  tall  stake-like  stems  of  a  yucca  plant 
which  grows  there. 


clothed  with  evergreens,  and  deciduou^  trees  whose  autumn 
foliage  adds  to  the  beauty  of  the  scene. 

The  bases  of  the  cljfifs  are  water- worn,  and  there  are  many 
small  caverns  whose  ragged  sides  are  lined  with  huge  crystals. 
Here  and  there  is  a  waterfall.  Back  from  the  stream  the  moun- 
tains rise  terrace  above  terrace,  until  the  clouds  are  reached, 
and  the  sharp  peaks  of  the  highest  range  disappear  in  the 
drifting  vapor. 

The  Mississippi,  called  by  the  Indians  "Great  Eiver,''  is 
the  largest  river  of  North  America.  Its  length  is  about  2,800 
miles,  or,  tracing  it  from  the  Gulf  to  the  sources  of  the  Mis- 
souri, which  is  the  larger  stream,  about  4,300  miles.  It  car- 
ries into  the  Gulf  675,000  cubic  feet  of  water  every  second, 
and  the  area  of  its  delta  is  38,000  square  miles.  The  Missis- 
ippi  Eivey  system  opens  to  commerce  the  whole  southern  sec- 
tion of  the  Great  Central  Plain. 

The  following  tables  give  the  elevation  of  the  principal  moun- 
tain peaks,  the  size  of  the  great  lakes,  and  the  length  of  the  chief 


rivers: 


SOME  OF  THE  CHIEF  MOUNTAINS  OF  NOETH  AMERICA. 


Name. 

Location. 

Elevation, 
Feet. 

St    Elias 

17,900 
17,720 
17,380 
14,887 
14,442 
14,383 
14,271 
14,176 
14,147 
13,570 
6,707 

PoT>ooiitaTM*tl    volcano 

Mexico 

Orizaba    volca^no                      

u 

Whitnev              .               

Sierra  Nevad.a<« 

Shasta 

a               tt 

Rocky  Mouijtaiiis 

HarvJird          .                

TjOiiff's  Peak.           

Holv  Cross 

Pike's  Peak 

u               n 

tt                  n 

Mitchell 

White  Mountains 

6,293 
5,110 

TTerla    volcano            ....           ..  .. 

Iceland 

AEEA,   ETC.,   OF  GREAT  LAKES. 


Name. 

Area, 
Square  Miles. 

Length, 
Miles. 

> 

ElevatiOD, 
Feet. 

Mean  Depth, 
Feet 

Tjake  Sunerior 

31,400 
25,600 
23,800 
40,000 
7,300 

355 
340 

280 
250 
190 

609.40 
589.15 
589.15 
573.08      '- 
250.00 

1.000 

Lake  Michigan _ 

990 

1,000 

128 

606 

PEINCIPAL  EIVEE  SYSTEMS. 


Name. 


Mississippi 

Mackenzie 

St.  Lawrence.... 
Saskatchewan . . . 

Columbia 

Colorado 

Rio  Grande 

Yukon 

Colorado,  Texas 

Brazos 

Alabama 

St.  John 

Susquehanna 

Hudson 

Connecticut 

Savannah 


Area  of  Drainage, 
Square  Miles. 


1,244,000 

590,000 

480,000 

478,000 

298,000 

257,000 

240,000 

200^000 

38,000 

34,000 

33,000 

26,500 

25,000 

12,000 

10,600 

10,000 


Length, 
Miles. 


4,300 

2,300 

2,000 

1,900 

1,020 

1,000 

1,500 

1,600 

600 

650 

650 

450 

400 

330 

350 

300 


Questions. — How  does  the  altitude  of  Mt.  Washington  compare  with  that 
of  Mt.  St.  Elias?  How  does  Hecla  compare  with  Popocatapetl?  Which  is 
larger,  Jlinnesota  or  the  Great  Lakes?  What  proportion  of  the  entire  conti- 
nent is  drained  by  the  Mississippi  System? 


C.St,  ftoque 


^ 


PHYSICAIi  MAP  OP 

SOUTH  AMERICA 


Scale  of  Jlilcs 


0       100     200      300     400      500.     600      700      800    ^00 


/Str.  o/MageUan 
DoBOlatti 


c*_  South 


'•CAPS  HOHH 


SOUTH    AMERICA. 

(Physical.) 


MAP  STUDIES. 


General  Questions. — Are  the  coasts  of  South  America  regular  or  broken  ? 
Which  coast  is  most  indented  hy  the  sea?  Wliich  is  lowest?  Which  has  the 
largest  number  of  islands?  What  is  the  general  direction  of  each  coast?  What 
portions  of  the  continent  are  mountainous?  Starting  from  the  Straits  of 
Magellan,  how  far  could  one  travel  northward  without  crossing  mountains? 
Are  the  plains  or  highlands  mo.st  extensive  ? 

How  many  great  river  systems  are  there?  Which  ocean  receives  the 
largest  amount  of  water  from  the  rivers?  Is  the  general  slope  of  the  con- 
tinent toward  the  Atlantic  or  the  Pacific? 

Find  the  greatest  length  and  breadth  of  the  continent.     Measure  the  rivers 

and  name  them  in  the  order  of  their  length.     So 

far  as  temperature  is  concerned,  what  is  the  climate         ^„  - 

of  the  continent?    Judging  by  the  rivers,  is  the         W^ 
rainfall  heavy  or  light?  ft&;^_r 

Compare  South  America  with  North  America         ^St       .—-' 
as  to  form,  regularity  of  coasts,  position  and  direc-         !: 
tion  of  mountain  chains,  position  of  Great  Central 
Plain,  and  character  of  climate. 

EXERCISES.— Name,  locate,  and  describe 
the  coast  -waters ;  islands ;  mountaios ;  high- 
lands ;  plains,  including  llanos,  selvas,  pampas; 
lakes,  and  rivers. 

Sketch  the  coasts,  principal  mountain 
ranges,  lakes  and  great  rivers.  Draw  relief 
diagrams  as  the  teacher  may  direct. 


DESCRIPTION. 

Coasts. — Though  South  America  is 
without  great  peninsulas  or  important 
indentations  of  its  coasts,  save  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Amazon  and  of  the  La 
Plata,  its  navigable  rivers  are  highways 
for  vessels  of  the  largest  size,  and  these 
are,  in  a  measure,  equivalent  to  the 
irregular  coasts  of  other  countries. 

Surface. — South  America,  like  North 
America,  has  a  great  highland  system 
on  the  west  and  a  smaller  system  on  the 
east,  with  a  great  plain  between. 

The  Andes. — From  the  misty  Straits 
of  Magellan  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
4,500  miles,  extend  the  Andes,  one  of 
the  grandest  mountain  systems  of  the 
globe.  For  more  than  a  thousand  miles 
there  is  but  a  single  chain,  made  up  of 
a  series  of  old  volcanic  peaks  rising  from 
the  lofty  table-land  of  a  coast  broken  by 
countless  fiords,  and  worn  by  the  dash- 
ing waves.  The  average  height  of  this 
portion  of  the  mountains  is  about  6,000 
feet. 


v^SSh 


ASCENDISa  TUB  ANDES. 


In  difficult  mountain  climbing,  wliy  is  the  mule  pre- 
ferred to  the  horse?  Is  there  anything  in  the  engraving 
to  show  whether  the  travelers  are  near  the  base  of  the 
mountain,  or  whether  they  are  well  up  its  sides?  What 
is  the  probable  use  of  the  structure  seen  on  the  narrow 
plateau  ? 


At  its  southern  extremity  stands  Mt.  Sarmiento,  one  of  the  most  impos- 
ing peaks  in  the  whole  Andean  range.  It  rears  a  spotless  cone  of  snow  6,910 
feet  above  the  sea.  Many  blue-colored  glaciers  descend  from  its  snoviy  cap 
through  the  dark  forests  at  its  base,  looking,  as  Darwin,  the  naturalist,  tells 
us,   "like  so  many  frozen  Niagaras."* 

Further  north  there  are  two  nearly  parallel  ranges,  with  a 
long  narrow  strip  of  land  descending  in  terraces  to  the  Pacific 

*  Sec  Voyage  of  a  Naturalist,  by  Charles  Darwin. 


The  ranges  inclose  barren  table-lands,  and  on  the  eastern  slopes 
are  romantic,  hilly  landscapes  covered  with  rocks,  lava,  and 
ashes.  Many  portions  of  the  mountains  consist  of  soft,  chalky 
rock,  which,  from  exposure  to  the  air,  has  worn  into  shapes 
like  turrets  of  ruined  churches  or  castles. 

This  central  section  of  the  Chilian  Andes  has  an  elevation 
of  some  13,000  feet,  while  the  highest  summits  reach  22,415 
feet.  The  passes  are  very  difficult,  none  of  them  being  lower 
than  7,200  feet,  while  several  have  an  elevation  of  two  and 

one-half  miles.  The  eastern  slope  of  this 
portion  of  the  mountains  is  very  grad- 
ual, merging  at  last  into  the  pampas  ol 
the  Argentine  Eepublic. 

Still  further  north,  in  Bolivia,  and 
Peru,  are  several  ranges,  some  with 
rounded  outlines  and  others  crowned 
with  jagged  crests,  covered  with  per- 
petual snow.  The  Pacific  slope  of  Peru 
is  a  long,  arid  wast*,  intersected  by  nar- 
row, deep  river  valleys  made  fertile  by 
the  melting  snows  of  the  Cordilleras. 

Between  the  ranges  are  table-lands  from  11,000 
to  14,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  glittering  snow- 
clad  peaks  bordering  the  table-lauds  may  be  seen 
far  out  on  the  ocean,  towering  like  silver  spires. 
On  these  plateaus  are  the  cold,  sterile,  uninhabit- 
able regions  called  by  the  Spaniards,  despoblados 
and  punas.  Here,  too,  are  the  closed  mountain 
valleys,  or  holsonas,  with  the  climate  and  products 
of  the  Temperate  Zones;  and  also  the  wild  island- 
studded  lake,  Titicaca,  12,196  feet  above  the  sea. 

It  was  in  these  mountain  valleys  that  Peruvian 
civilization  flourished,  and  the  lucas  reigned  for 
centuries  before  Columbus  was  bom.  On  the 
shores  of  the  lake  are  the  ruins  of  noble  temples 
and  other  buildings  erected  by  these  people. 

In  this  region,  too,  are  the  tropical  mountain 
gorges,  where  ten  thousand  streams  that  feed  the 
Amazon  gather  their  waters  before  forcing  their 
way  through  frightful  clefts  and  over  thundering 
cataracts  to  the  vast  plains  below. 

Between  two  nearly  parallel  ranges 
of  the  mountains  of  Ecuador  lies  a  val- 
ley 250  miles  long  and  but  14  to  20  miles 
wide.  The  road  leading  southward  from 
Quito,  which  is  situated  in  this  valley, 
is  bordered  by  fifty  peaks,  three  of  which 
emit  volumes  of  smoke.  Here  is  Chim- 
borazo,  20,517  feet,  the  great  silver  bell 
of  the  group,  and  not  far  away  is  Coto- 
paxi,  19,550  feet,  with  its  regular  cone, 
and  its  crater  15,000  feet  higher  than 
Vesuvius  in  the  Old  World,  and,  at 
times,  belching  fiames  3,000  feet  above 

its  cap  of  snow,  with  a  roaring  that  has  been  heard  600  miles 

at  sea. 

Near  Quito,  which  is  but  nine  miles  from  the  Equator,  may  be  had  one  of 
the  grandest  views  on  earth.  The  great  traveler,  Humboldt,  says:  *"Here,  at 
a  single  glance,  one  may  see  the  luxuriant  forests  of  the  tropics,  the  oaks  and 
other  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers  of  the  Temperate  Zone;  the  Alpine  flowers, 
licheiis,  and  ice  oi  the  polar  regions;    and,  at  night,  volcanoes,  with  their 

"Cosmos,  Vol.  I.,  oage  II. 


21 


22 


PLAIN'S  AND  LOWLANDS— RIVEES. 


fUunee,  and  all  the  constellations  in  the  sky  of  both  hemispheies,  from  the 
Polar  Star  to  the  clouds  of  Magellan." 

In  the  diverging  mountain  ranges  of  Colombia  are  fertile 

valleys  with  rushing   streams  and  every  variety  of  climate. 

Some  of  the  upper  valleys  are  so  rugged  that  no  roads  can 

be  built,  and  everything  is  carried  on  the  backs  of  mules  or 

of  men. 

Near  Bogota  are  the  falls  of  Tequandama,  the  most  noted  cataract  of  South 
America.  The  river  rushes  in  clouds  of  foam  and  mist  through  the  rocky  sides 
of  its  bed  until  it  reaches  a  deep  gorge,  where  it  plunges  into  an  abyss,  dis- 
appearing in  a  cloud  of  mist  with  a  terrific  roar  that  echoes  among  the  hills. 
The  plunge  is  580  feet,  and  the  force  of  the  water  has  scooped  out  a  well  130 
feet  deep  in  the  rock  below. 


summits  fall  below  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  and  most  of  them 

are  destitute  of  trees. 

Mount  Roraima,  on  the  lx)undary  between  Guiana  and  Venezuela,  is  a  mass 
of  sandstone  eighteen  miles  long,  with  perpendicular  sides  and  a  perfectly  level 
summit  7,500  feet  high.  Its  bare,  vertical  walls  are  in  no  place  le.ss  than  1,500 
feet  in  sheer  precipice.  The  summit  is  the  source  of  several  streams  which 
leap  from  the  plateau  in  grand  cascades. 

The  Brazilian  Highlands  consist  of  hilly  ranges  with  numer- 
ous intervening  valleys  or  elevated  table-lands,  intersected  by 
mountain  ridges.  The  Serro-do-Es-pin-ha-co,  a  name  meaning 
backbone,  has  several  peaks  of  8,000  feet,  but  none  to  compare 
with  the  monsters  of  the  Andes. 

Plains  and  Lowlands. — Plains  and  lowlands  con- 
stitute four -fifths  of  the  surface  of  the  continent. 
Their  area  exceeds  that  of  the  United  States  by  more 
than  2,000,000  square  miles.  The  pampas  of  the  La 
Plata,  stretching  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
continent ;  the  selvas  of  the  Amazon  and  the  llanos 
of  the  Orinoco  form  a  continuous  series  of  low- 
lands 3,500  miles  in  length. 

The  elevation  between  the  rivers  which  drain  these  plains 

is  so  slight  that  a  large  stream, 

called  the  Casiquiare,  flows 

both  ways,  carrying  a  part  of 

its  waters  to  the  Orinoco,  and 

a  part  to  the  Rio  Negro,   a 

branch  of  the  Amazon;  and 

the  tributaries  of  the  Amazon 

and  of  the  Paraguay 

aresometimesjoined 

during  seasons  of 

higli  water. 


The  Andes,  with  their 
many  peaks,  extending 
along  the  western  border  of  the  conti- 
nent, check  the  movement  of  the  winds 
that  sweep  over  it,  condense  their  mois- 
ture to  a  remarkable  degree,  greatly 
affecting  the  climate  as  well  as  plant 
and  animal  life  so  largely  controlled 
by  it. 

The  engraving  on  the  left  represents  a  hunting 
party  in  pursuit  oC  the  nandu,  or  South  American 
ostrich.  Each  hunter  is  provided  with  a  missile 
called  a  "bola,"  consisting  of  a  pair  of  balls 
fastened  together  by  a  string  of  rawhide.  When 
within  sixty  or  eighty  feet,  the  bola  is  thrown  and 
entangles  the  legs  of  the  fleeing  bird,  so  that  it  is 

easily  caught.    The  feathers  of  the  uaudu  are  valued  for  dusters.    Cattle  are 
caught  in  the  same  manner. 

Is  there  anything  in  the  engraving  to  indicate  whether  the  principal 
mountain  peak  is  high  or  low?  How  many  "pack  traing"  are  seen?  What 
animal  is  used?  Why  preferred  to  the  horse?  How  many  kinds  of  plants 
are  seen?  Do  the  plants  indicate  a  warm  or  a  cool  climate?  What  is  a 
lagoon? 

Minerals. — The  Andes  are  famed  for  their  minerals.  Gold, 
silver,  copper,  platinum,  iron,  and  other  metals  are  found  in 
different  sections. 

Eastern  Highlands. — The  highlands  of  Guiana  are  moder- 
ately elevated  table-lands  from  which  hills  and  ridges  rise  in 
solitary  clusters,  with  intervening  fertile  plains.      The  loftiest 


Rivers. — The  Amazon  is  sometimes  called  the  "King  of 
Elvers."  It  is  3,600  miles  in  length,  and,  with  its  tributaries, 
many  of  which  are  great  streams,  it  drains  a  plain  whose  area 
is  two-thirds  as  great  as  that  of  Europe.  No  other  river  on 
earth  discharges  half  so  much  water  into  the  sea.  So  vast  is 
the  quantity  that  it  changes  the  color  and  saltness  of  the 
ocean  a  hundred  miles  from  shore.  Eising  in  the  high  moun- 
tain valleys  of  Peru,  it  becomes  a  large  stream,  navigable  for 
1,000  miles  before  leaving  that  country.  Entering  Brazil,  the 
main  stream  and  its  nineteen  principal  aflSuents  furnish  that 
empire  with  25,000  miles  of  water-way  available  for  steamboat 
navigation. 


EUEOPE— COAST— SUEF ACE, 


23 


On  the  Lower  Amazon  there  are  hundreds  of  miles  of  side  channels,  lagoons, 
creeks,  lak&s,  and  streams,  all  connected  with  the  main  channel  of  the  river, 
where  one  may  sail  in  a  small  boat  for  weeks  without  seeing  a  human  being. 

The  alluvial  plain  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  forming  its  delta,  extends  150 
miles  inland.  It  is  everywhere  traversed  by  channels  and  creeks,  some 
narrow  as  canals  for  scores  of  miles,  others  expanding  into  spacious  lagoons  and 
hays,  mostly  deep  and  navigable. 

The  Orinoco  is  a  stream   carrying  more  water  than  the 

Mississippi.     It  is  navigable  for  large  vessels  to  a  point  800 

miles  above  its  mouth,  and  so  broad  and  deep  are  its  waters 

that  large  ships  spread  their  sails  to  catch  the  trade  winds 

that  blow  from  the  east,  and  are  borne  up  stream  against  the 

sluggish  current.     On  the  Lower  Orinoco  the  banks  are  low, 

and  during  the  season  of  greatest  rain  millions  of  acres  are 


over^^owed  and  the  country  has  the  appearance  of  an  immense 
lake  with  small,  low  islands  here  and  there. 

At  the  great  cataracts,  the  Orinoco  is  over  a  mile  and  a  half  wide.  The 
water  rushes  over  and  among  a  wilderness  of  granite  rocks,  changing  it  into  a 
mass  of  foam.  Each  mass  of  granite  is  like  some  ruined  tower  or  castle,  and 
is  surmounted  by  a  group  of  palms  or  otJ[ier  trees.  On  every  stone  where  the 
soft  mould  has  gathered  during  a  flood,  grow  the  mimosa,  with  its  delicate 
leaves,  and  orchids  with  their  charming  flowers.  These  are  perfect  little  gar- 
dens surrounded  by  foam.  A  cloud  of  vapor  hovers  over  the  river  and  the 
rainbow  shines  through  the  verdant  hues  of  innumerable  bowers  of  foliage. 
This  is  the  lovely  spectacle  the  Orinoco  affords  for  a  distance  of  several  miles 
along  its  two  rapids.* 

The  great  estuary,  named  th«  Rio  de  la  Plata,  or  "Silver  Stream,"  is  the 
outlet  of  a  river  system  which  has  sometimes  been  called  the  Mississippi  of 
South  America.  At  Montevideo  it  is  62  miles  broad.  The  two  main  tributaries, 
the  Paraguay  and  the  Parana,  are  navigable,  one  for  1,700,  the  other  for  1,300, 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  La  Plata. 

*  Consult  Travela  and  BeseaTcbes  of  Humboldt, 


EUROPE, 


(Physical.) 


DESCRIPTION. 


Europe has 
a  much  longer 
-  ,  coast,  accord- 
/  ingto  its  area, 
than  any  other 
continent.  Vast 
seas  stretch  into 
the  land  and  broad 
peninsulas  extend 
hundreds  of  miles  in- 
to the  water,  so  that  no 
part  of  the  continent,  save 
the  interior  of  Eussia,  is 
more  than  400  miles  from  the  sea.  Even  the  large  islands  add  to 
the  length  of  its  coast  and  increase  its  facilities  for  commerce. 

From  the  most  ancient  times  the  Mediterranean  has  been  a  highway  of  civ- 
ilization between  the  nations  dwelling  on  its  shores,  north,  south,  east,  and 
west;  and  now,  also,  it  forms  a  part  of  the  great  highway  between  Asia  and 
Europe.  No  other  sea  has  played  so  large  a  part  in  the  history  of  mankind. 
It  was  the  "Great  Sea"  of  the  sacred  writers;  "  Our  Sea  "  and  the  "Inner 
Sea"  of  the  Romans,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  outer  sea — the  great  ocean 
beyond  the  pillars  of  Hercules.* 


Surface. — The  continent  may  be 
divided  into  two  large,  unequal  por- 
tions, one  of  which  is  a  plain,  includ- 
ing five-sevenths  of  the  surface;  the 
other,  a  highland  region  consisting  of 
a  net-work  of  mountain  ranges,  low 
table-lands,  many  inclosed  basins  and 
hundreds  of  open,  fertile  valleys,  all 
giving  great  diversity  of  surface  and 
of  climate. 

Mountains, — The  Alps   are  the 
most  important  mountains.  They  cul- 
minate in  Mont  Blanc,  15,781  feet  in 
height,   and  form  a  water-shed  be- 
tween  the   rivers    flowing    into   the 
North  Sea  and  those  that  discharge 
their  waters  into  the  Mediterranean. 
With  their  various  windings  they  have 
a  length  of  700  miles,  and  cover  an 
area  of  90,000  square  miles.    Their  average 
height  is  about  7,700  feet,  and  above  this  elevation  there  are 
more  than  400  peaks  that  rise  to  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow. 
The  most  noted  peaks  are  from  12,000  to  15,000  feet  in  height. 

Approaching  the  Alps  from  the  plains  of  France  or  Germany,  one  finds  the 
ground  begin  to  rise  and  sink  in  long  ridges  which  follow  each  other  in  parallel 
lines,  like  the  undulations  on  the  surface  of  a  great  ocean.  The  smooth  valleys 
are  green  and  fertile;  the  ridges  bear  their  slopes  of  rich  pasture  and  shaggy 
wood.  Here  and  there,  deep,  transverse  gorges  cross  the  ridges  and  carry  the 
drainage  out  into  the  plains  beyond. 

Threading  his  way  through  these  transverse  valleys,  the  traveler  finds  the 
ridges  on  either  hand  growing  higher,  and  the  hollows  between  steeper  and 
steeper,  until  he  reaches  one  of  the  last  and  loftiest  of  these  outer  elevations. 
From  its  top,  he  can  see  on  one  side  the  succession  of  wave-like  folds  of  hill  and 
valley  across  which  he  has  journeyed;  on  the  other,  his  eye  may  take  in  the 
whole  panorama  of  the  Alps,  a  vast  array  of  mountains  crowding  behind  each 
other  along  the  sky  line,  their  higher  crests  and  slopes  white  with  snow  and 
hardly,  at  times,  to  be  distinguished  from  the  white  clouds  which  rest  upon  them.  X 

The  Alps  are  very  different  from  the  Andes  with  their 
long  parallel  ranges  and  narrow  plateaus  and  valleys  stretch- 
ing on  for  hundreds  of  miles  in  the  same  direction.  Stand- 
ing on  a  peak  of  the  Alps  one  sees  around  his  horizon,  points, 
pinnacles,  jagged  crests,  ridges,  horns,  teeth,  and  snowy  crests 
glittering  from  afar.  All  seem  thrown  together  as  if  by  chance, 
like  the  broken,  frozen  waves  of  a  mighty  ocean, 

*  ^ee  Stanford's  Corapendiimi  of  Geography  and  Travel.— -Fwrope. 
t  Consult  Elementary  Lessons  in  Physical  Geography.— Gettie. 


EUROPE— GLACIEES  — MAP  STUDIES. 


25 


Between  the  ridges  run  numberless  valleys  and  cross  valleys, 
some  open  to  the  bright  sun,  some  shaded  by  mountain  walls. 
In  the  district  of  the  Orisons,  one  of  the  most  inaccessible  of 
the  Alpine  regions,  there  are  500  valleys  so  winding  and  intri- 
cate that  they  have  been  the  citadel  of  Europe,  a  refuge  for 
oppressed  peoples,  for  many  centuries. 

Avalanches. —  Vast  quantities  of  snow  fall  on  the  moun- 
tain slopes  and  in  the  higher  valleys.  At  the  Hospice  of  Grim- 
sel,  6,148  feet  above  the  sea,  the  naturalist,  Agassiz,  noticed  a 
fall  of  57J  feet  during  the  six  winter  months.  On  the  St.  Ber- 
nard the  snowfall  ranges  from  11 J  to  44  J  feet  every  year,  while 
on  the  St.  Gothard  6i  feet  sometimes  comes  in  a  single  night. 
In  spring  and  summer  the  heat  of  the  sun  and  the  warm  winds 
loosen  great  bodies  of  snow  which  have  accumulated  on  the- 
high  slopes,  and  travelers,  in  the  green  valleys  below,  often 
see  acres  of  snow  sliding  down  the  silvery  pyramid  of  the 
Jungfrau. 


ASCENT  OF  MONT   DLANC. 


"First  the  enormous  bed  of  snow  is  seen  to  plunge  forth  like  a  cataract, 
and  lose  itself  in  the  lower  stages  of  the  mountain;  whirlwinds  of  powdered 
snow,  like  a  cloud  of  bright  smoke,  rise  far  and  wide  into  tlie  atmos^ere;  and 
then,  when  tlie  snow  cloud  has  passed  away,  and  the  whole  region  has  again 
assumed  its  solemn  calm,  the  thunder  of  tlie  avalanche  is  heard  reverberating 
in  deep  echoes  in  the  mountiiin  gorges." 

The  avalanches  most  dreaded  by  the  people  living  in  the  Alps  are  those 
which  immediately  follow  a  fresh  fall  of  snow.  Before  the  fresh  layers  have 
had  time  to  adhere  to  the  old  snow,  the  tread  of  the  little  chamois,  the  fall  of 
a  branch  from  some  bush,  or  even  an  echo  may  start  a  mass  of  snow  which  in- 
creases in  speed  and  in  size  as  it  descends.  It  rushes  down  steep  slopes,  leaps 
over  ledges,  loosens  rocks,  tears  down  trees,  sweeps  away  houses  in  its  path,  and 


buries  hamlets  in  the  valley  below.  On  the  borders  of  the  avalanche,  clouds 
of  fine  snow  fill  the  air,  which  roars  and  whirls  with  such  violence  as  to  shake 
the  very  rocks,  and  uproot  hundreds  of  trees.  In  those  districts  most  liable  to 
avalanches  protection  is  sought  by  planting  forest  trees;  by  driving  piles  of 
wood  and  of  iron;  and  by  erecting  buttresses  and  heavy  walls  of  rock. 

Glaciers. — The  Alps  are  noted  for  their  ice  rivers,  or  gla- 
ciers, nearly  1,100  of  which  have  been  counted  in  the  high 
valleys.  Some  of  the  glaciers  are  from  fifteen  to  thirty  miles 
in  length,  and  from  one  to  two  miles  in  width.  Their  depth, 
as  measured  by  dropping  stones  into  the  crevices  in  the  ice, 
is  sometimes  800,  1,000,  or  even  1,600  feet. 

The  glaciers  of  Mont  Blanc  alone,  though  not  so  large  as 

those  of  Monte  Eosa,  cover  109  square  miles.     If  melted,  it  is 

said  they  would  supply  water  sufiBcient  to  keep  the  Seine,  a 

large,  navigable  stream,  running  for  nine  years. 

The  gliu-iers  have  their  sources  in  the  fields  of  perpetual  snow  between  the 
mountain  walls,  and  move  down  the  valley  a  few  inches  a  day.  Slowly  and 
surely  moving  on,  century  after  century,  with  layers  of  white  or  bluish  ice 
hundreds  of  feet  thick,  bearing  with  them  innumerable  fragments  of  rock  and 
earth  loosened  from  the  ledges  and  slopes.  Some  of  the  glaciers  descend  far  he- 
low  the  snow  line,  into  forests  of  beeches,  birches,  and  larches,  and  even  so  low 
into  the  warm  valleys  that  fields  of  wheat,  gardens,  and  vineyards  extend  to  the 
ice  river.  Many  rivera  have  their  sources  in  glaciers,  and  beautiful  mountain 
lakes  are  fed  by  streams  from  the  melting  ice.* 

Passes. — The  Alps  have  many  natural  passes,  over  forty 
of  which  commercial  highways  have  been  built.  The  Grimsel 
and  Purka  passes  at  the  head  of  the  Rhone  Valley;  the  Simp- 
Ion,  the  St.  Gothard,  and  the  great  St.  Bernard  are  among 
those  most  noted. 

Pyrenees. — Next  to  the  Alps,  the  Pyrenees  are  the  most 
important  mountains  in  Europe.  The  chain  is  a  long  saw -like 
ridge  whose  high  passes  are  but  little  lower .  than  the  neigh- 
boring peaks.  The  average  height  of  the  range  is  about  8,000 
feet.  In  it  are  many  narrow  gorges  with  dashing  streams  and 
winding  foot-paths.  There  are  valleys,  also,  like  huge  amphi- 
theaters, with  high  ragged  rock  walls  all  about  them. 

The  Caucasus  Mountains  are  rocky  barriers  rising  ab- 
ruptly from  the  plains  and  crowned  by  a  series  of  snowy  peaks, 
the  chief  of  which  is  Mt.  Elburz,  18,526  feet,  or  more  than 
2,000  feet  higher  than  Mont  Blanc. 

The  Urals  form  a  low  range  exceedingly  rich   in   metals. 

The    Scandinavian  Mountains  consist  of  broken  ranges 

rising  from  high  plateaus.      The   greatest   elevation   at  any 

point  is  something  over  8,000  feet. 

No  European  highlands  surpass  those  of  Scandinavia  in  terrific  and  savage 
grandeur.  They  are  rent  and  torn,  full  of  fearful  chasms  and  deep  gorges, 
abounding  in  mountain  lakes  imbedded  in  vertical  rock  walls,  and  impetuous 
torrents  and  rivers,  often  forming  enormous  waterfalls.  The  hills  are  strewn 
with  scattered  fragments  of  rock  and  filled  with  mighty  glaciers. 

Volcanoes. —  Mt.  Etna,  in  Sicily,  is  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated volcanoes  of  the  world.      Its  base  is  about  90  miles  in 

•Consult  Eeclus,  Vol.  I. 


MAP  STUDIES. 


General  Questions. —  Are  the  coasts  of  Europe  regular  or  irregular?  Point 
out  the  lowest  coasts.  "What  part  of  the  continent  is  most  distant  from  the 
sea?  What  part  is  best  situated  for  commerce?  Name  five  islands  in  the  order 
of  their  size.  How  many  great  peninsulas  are  there?  Which  portion  of  the 
continent  is  most  mountainous,  and  which  consists  of  a  great  plain? 

Are  there  few  or  many  rivers  ?  Draw  an  irregular  line  across  the  continent 
in  such  a  way  as  to  divide  it  into  two  great  slopes,  the  rivers  of  one  slope  flow- 
ing northwest;  of  the  other,  southeast. 

Find  the  greatest  length  of  the  continent.     What  is  the  distance  across  the 


eastern  plain  from  the  Sea  of  Azof  to  the  Kara  Sea?    From  the  Caspian  to  the 
Baltic ?    What  is  the  length  of  Great  Britain ?    Of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula? . 
Of  the  Mediterranean  Sea? 

In  how  many  zones  does  Europe  lie  ?  Compare  it  with  the  two  Americas 
as  to  regularity  of  coasts;  distance  of  the  interior  from  the  sea;  the  position, 
direction,  and  length  of  mountain  chains;  size  and  number  of  rivers;  the  num- 
ber of  islands  near  the  coast;  the  greatest  extent  of  land,  whether  frt>m  north  to 
south  or  from  east  to  west;  and  the  number  qf  zones. 

EXERCISES.-  Locate  and  describe  the  coast  waters,  peninsulas,  prin- 
cipal islands,  chief  mountains,  lakes,  and  rivers. 

Sketch  the  coasts,  British  Isles,  principal  mountains,  and  chief  river*. 
Draw  diagrrams  showing  relief  of  the  continent. 


26 


ASIA— MAP  STUDIES— COAST— SURFACE. 


circumference  and  it  rises  like  an  immense  cone  to  the  height 
of  about  11,000  feet.  Its  height  is  so  great  that  the  lava  breaks 
through  its  sides  and  has  formed  innumerable  smaller  cones 
all  about  it. 

Vesuvius  is  ten  miles  from  Naples,  and  is  the  only  active 
volcano  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Its  height  is  about  4,000 
feet. 

Plains. —  The  plains  of  Europe  embrace  about  two-thirds 
of  the  continent.  The  Valdai  Hills,  which  rise  with  a  gentle 
swell  to  the  height  of  1,100  feet,  are  the  greatest  elevations  of 
the  vast  eastern  plain.  The  table-lands  are  low  when  com- 
pared with  the  plateaus  of  other  continents.  Those  of  Spain 
have  an  elevation  of  but  1,000  to  2,000  feet. 

Rivers. —  The  rivers  of  Europe,  although  not  so  large  as 
those  of  America,  are  very  numerous.  Most  of  them  are  nav- 
igable, and,  as  they  aris  generally  connected  by  canals,  every 
Section  of  the  continent  has  its  water-roads.  The  ten  thous- 
and streams  of  Europe  give  fertility  to  its  soil,  beauty  to  its 
landscapes,  health  and  prosperity  to  its  people. 

The  Volga  is  the  longest  European  river,  hut  its  volume  of  water  is  far  less 
than  that  carried  by  the  Danube.  With  its  tributaries  it  affords  about  7,200 
miles  of  navigation. 

In  the  upper  part  of  its  course,  it  flows  through  a  marshy  country  where  its 
banks  are  bordered  by  "trembling  forests"  resting  on  a  layer  of  soft  mud 
which  allows  the  surface  to  shake  at  every  step.  Its  lower  course,  until  it 
reaches  the  great  bend,  is  through  plains  like  tlie  flat  western  prairies.  Below 
this  point  its  right  bank  is  skirted  with  steep  cliffs,  rising  into  crags,  peaks,  and 
pyramids.  The  river  enters  the  Caspian  through  200  mouths  forming  a  delta 
50  miles  back.      Most  of  the  mouths  are  shifting  channels  choked  with  mud. 

The  Danube  is  the  largest  river  in  Europe  in  respect  to  the  volume  of 
water.  Above  Vienna  it  is  said  to  surpass  the  Rhine  in  the  beauty  of  its 
scenery.  It  skirts  many  smiling  valleys  overlooked  by  lofty  mountains, 
clothed  with  somber  forests  or  capped  with  snow. 

After  pa&sing  the  narrow  "Carpathian  Gate,"  it  breaks  up  into  a  number  of 
branches  encircling  many  "Golden  Islands."  It  then  flows  on,  a  broad  and 
rapid  stream,   through  fertile  plains,  till  it  reaches  the  mountain  border  of 


Roumauia,  where  it  crosses  a  rocky  ledge  called  the  "Iron  Gate,"  a  mile  in 
width,  with  tooth-like  points  projecting  above  the  surface,  forming  a  cataract  ot 
seething  waters.  The  river  system  of  the  Danube  has  2,500  miles  of  navigable 
water. 

The  Rhine,  called  by  the  Germans  "Father  Rhine,"  is  the  most  famous  of 
the  continental  rivers.  Rising  in  the  Alps,  its  upper  course  is  noted  for  its 
cataracts,  of  which  that  of  Schaffhausen,  a  fall  of  seventy  feet,  is  most  remark- 
able. 

In  its  middle  course,  the  river  winds  through  a  fertile  valley  often  called  the 
"Garden  of  Germany."  As  it  cuts  the  plateau  further  down,  it  flows  among 
vine-clad  hills,  often  crowned  with  ruined  castles,  or  between  towering  ledges 
that  open  now  and  then  into  beautiful  cross  valleys  with  clear  streams.  The 
length  of  the  Rhine  is  960  miles.  Its  basin  is  connected  by  canals  with  that 
of  the  Danube,  Rhone,  Saone,  and  other  streams. 

Lakes. — Europe  is  dotted  with  lakes,  and  its  coasts  are  in- 
dented by  many  narrow  and  deep  fiords.  In  the  Scandinavian 
Peninsula,  and  in  Finland,  the  lakes  are  numbered  by  thous- 
ands. The  lochs  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  and  the  fiords  on 
the  west  coast  are  celebrated  for  their  wild  beauty.  There  are, 
also,  many  beautiful  lakes  in  "Wales,  and  in  the  mountainous 
parts  of  England. 

The  lakes  of  the  Alps  are  remarkable  for  their  number,  their  depth,  and  the 
beauty  and  grandeur  of  their  scenery.  The  largest  are  small  when  compared 
with  the  great  lakes  of  North  America.  The  Lake  of  Geneva  has  an  area  of  but 
220,  and  Lake  Constance  208,  square  miles.  Lake  Maggiore,  in  Italy,  has  a 
depth  of  2,666  feet,  the  deepest  part  being  2,000  i'eet  below  the  sea  level. 

Minerals. —  Gold  and  silver  are  not  so  plentiful  as  in  the 
other  continents;  but  the  useful  minerals  are  abundant.  The 
precious  metals  are  found  in  the  Carpathian  Mountains ;  gold, 
diamonds,  and  platinum  in  the  Ural.  Iron  is  widely  distribut- 
ed, and  is  very  abundant  in  Scandinavia,  Britain,  and  France. 
Coal  is  most  abundant  in  Britain  and  Belgium;  copper,  in 
Norway  and  Britain ;  lead,  in  England  and  Spain ;  tin,  in 
England  and  Germany;  quicksilver,  in  Austria  and  Spain; 
sulphur,  in  Italy ;  marble,  in  Italy  and  Greece;  salt,  in  Russia, 
Austria,  Germany,  and  England. 


ASIA. 

(Physical.) 


MAP  STUDIES. 


General  Questions.— What  is  the  character  of  the  coa.sts  of  Asia?  Which 
coast  is  lowest?  How  many  great  peninsulas  on  the  east  and  south?  How 
many  seas  indent  the  coast?     How  many  gulfs? 

What  portion  of  the  continent  is  most  elevated  ?  In  what  directions  does 
the  land  slope?  Toward  which  ocean  is  the  slope  long  and  gradual  ?  Are  the 
rivers  equally  distributed  over  the  continent?  Point  out  those  portions  of  the 
continent  having  few  streams.  Which  ocean  receives  water  from  the  largest 
number  of  rivers?  In  what  direction  is  the  continent  longest?  Determine  its 
greatest  length  and  breadth.  What  is  the  distance  from  the  Caspian  Sea,  across 
the  northern  plain,  to  Behring  Strait?  What  is  the  distance  from  Lake  Baikal 
to  the  Arctic  Ocean?  What  is  the  length  of  the  Red  Sea?  Of  the  Malay  Pen- 
insula? 

•  Judging  by  the  latitude,  which  part  of  the  continent  is  very  cold  ?  Very 
warm?  Point  out  those  portions  of  the  continent  that  have  the  least  rainfall. 
Give  reasons  for  your  conclusions.  If  Europe  were  placed  over  Central  Asia 
would  its  boundaries  touch  the  sea  at  any  point?  Which  continent  most  re- 
sembles Asia  in  the  direction  of  its  mountain  ranges?  In  the  indentations  of 
its  coasts  ? 

EXERCISES.— Name,  locate,  and  describe  the  coast  waters,  peninsulas, 
islands,  mountains,  plateaus,  deserts,  plains  or  steppes,  Inland  seas  and 
lakes,  and  great  rivers. 

Sketch  the  coasts,  principal  mountains,  inland  seas,  lakes,  and  chief 
rivers.    Draw  dia^ams,  showing:  elevations,  as  the  teacher  directs. 


DESCRIPTION. 


Size. — Asia  is  the  largest  of  the  continents.  North  Amer- 
ica and  South  America  together  do  not  equal  it  in  size  by  more 
than  1,000,000  square  miles.  The  distance  from  the  Isthmus 
of  Suez  to  East  Cape  is  6,700  miles;  from  Cape  Romania  to 
Cape  Northeast,  in  a  straight  line,  5,300  miles. 

Coast. — Though  the  coast  is  deeply  indented,  the  heart  of 
the  continent  is  far  from  the  sea,  and  is  separated  from  it  by 
towering  mountain  ranges  and  extensive  deserts,  which  are 
crossed  with  great  difficulty. 

Surface. —  Central  Asia  is  a  table-land,  the  highest  and 
most  extensive  on  the  globe. 

The  average  elevation  is  6,000  to  15,000  feet,  and  far  above 

this  rise  the  Himalayas,  the  Kuen-lun,  and  other  ranges.     The 

central  plateau  has  an  area  of  nearly  3,000,000  square  miles, 

and  may  be  divided  into  sections,  greatly  differing  in  elevation 

and  character. 

The  Thibetan  Plateau  has  a  mean  elevation  of  14,000  to  20,000  feet;  the 
Pamir  Steppe,  to  the  west,  or  "Roof  of  the  World,"  as  the  natives  call  it,  and 
the  Kokonor  Basin,  in  the  east,  are  respectively  15,000  and  10,000  feet.  The 
Gobi  Desert  ranges  from  4,000  feet  in  the  ea.st  to  2,000  feet  in  the  west. 

The  Himalayas,  called  the  "Abode  of  Snow,"  extend  in  three 


28 


ASIA— MOUNTAINS— EI  VEES— LAKES. 


nearly  parallel  ranges  1,500  miles  southeastward  from  the  point 
where  the  mountain  systems  unite  in  the  "Eoof  of  the  World." 
They  form  terraces  with  intervening  valleys,  the 
highest  range  bordering  the  plateau  of  Thibet.  As 
many  as  forty  peaks  of  the 
Himalayas  are  known  to  ex- 
ceed 24,000  feet  in  elevation. 


the  Brah-ma-poo-tra,  the  Ganges,  and  the  Indus,  sacred  streams 

from  the  Himalayas,  flow  to  the  south;  the  Sihon  seeks  the 

Aral  Sea,  and  the  Euphrates  the  Persian  Gulf 

The  immense  rivers  of  the  great  northern  plain  afford  30,000 

miles  of  navigable  water,  but  as  they 

are  closed  by  ice  during  a  large  part 

of  tlie  year,  are  of  little  commercial 

i"^   '  importance. 


Mount  Everest,  the  highest  land 
on  the  globe,  is  29,002  feet. 


They 


Between  the  ranges  are  some  of  the  most  beautiful  valleys  on  earth, 
are  watered  by  clear  streams  and  have  a  genial  climate  and  a  fertile  soil. 

The  Himalayas  have  many  narrow,  deep  gorges,  some  of  which  are  dry; 
through  others  course  rivers  fed  by  gla^ 
ciers.    Baltoro,  the  largest  glacier,  is  33 
miles  long  and  is  flanked  by  two  peaks 
each  over  27,000  feet  high. 

The  northern  section  of  the 
continent  is  a  vast  plain  sloping 
to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  For  hun- 
dreds of  miles  inland  are  low, 
dreary  wastes  open  to  the  Arctic 
gales.  Southward  the  land 
ascends  gradually  to  the  South 
Siberian  highlands  and  to  the 
steppes  of  the  Aral  and  the  Cas- 
pian. Eastward  the  great  pla- 
teau descends  by  rugged  moun- 
tain slopes  to  the  fertile  vaUeys 
and  plateaus  of  China. 

Oh  the  south  of  the  central 
highlands,  stretching  from  east 
to  west,  are  the  rich  plains  of 
India,  sloping  to  the  sun.  The 
plateau  of  Deccan,  with  its  low 
mountain  borders,  is  but  2,000 
to  3,000  feet  in  elevation. 

Rivers. — The  rivers  of  Asia 
flow  in  all  directions  from  the 
central  highlands.  The  Obi,  the 
Yenisei,  and  the  Lena  find  their 
way  through  the  plains  of  Si- 
beria to  the  distant  northern 
ocean;  the  Amoor,  the  Ho-ang  ho,  and  Yang-tse-kiang  to  the 
Pacific;  the  Mekong  and  the  Irrawaddy  through  Farther  India; 


MOLST  EVEREST. 


The  Obi  drains  a  basin  larger  than 
that  of  the  Mississippi.    It  is  three  miles 
wide  700  miles  from  its  mouth.     The  Yenisei  and  the  Lena,  when  free  from  ice, 
have  5,000  to  6,000  miles  of  navigation. 

So  numerous  are  the  rivers  of  Southern  Siberia  that  one  may  travel  by  water 

from  the  Ural  Mountains  to  Yakutsk, 
on  the  Lena,  over  5,000  miles,  and  make 
but  two  portages  of  less  than  seventeen 
miles  together. 

The  Yang-tse-kiang  is  the  great  river 
of  China.  Its  estuary  is  60  miles  vride 
and  in  places  300  feet  deep.  The  tides 
penetrate  the  estuary  200  miles  up  from 
the  sea. 

The  united  delta  of  the  Ganges  and 
Brah-ma-poo-tra  is  said  to  be  the  largest 
in  the  world,  extending  200  miles  inland 
and  80  miles  along  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 
The  water  from  these  rivers  discolors 
the  sea  60  miles  from  shore. 

Lakes. —  Lake  Baikal,  or  the 
"  Holy  Sea,"  of  the  Mongolians, 
is  the  largest  lake  in  Asia.  It 
is  360  miles  long,  and  has  a  mean 
depth  of  850  feet,  the  line  sink- 
ing, in  places,  to  4,500  feet,  or 
far  below  the  sea  level. 

The  water  of  the  lake  is  remarkable 
for  its  transparency,  objects  on  the  bot- 
tom being  seen  to  a  depth  of  40  to  50 
feet.  The  shores  in  places  are  bold  and 
rocky,  and  hot  springs  abound.  A  lovely 
island  in  the  lake  is  famous  for  it  beau- 
tiful and  fragrant  Alpine  roses. 

Seas. — The  Aral  Sea  is  very 
yhallow  and  without  an  outlet, 
though  it  was  probably  once  con- 
nected with  the  Caspian  and  with 
Lake  Balkash.  The  Aral-Cas- 
pian depression  is  the  largest  in 
extent  on  the  earth.     Within  it 

are  salt  marshes  and  sandy  plains,  with  numberless  salt  lakes. 

On  one  camel  route  across  this  region,  but  a  single  tree  is  seen 


APEICA— COAST— SUEF  ACE. 


29 


in  a  journey  of  300  miles.  The  Caspian  is  84  feet  lower  than 
the  Black  Sea.  Both  the  Aral  and  the  Caspian  receive  large 
rivers,  and,  as  the  seas  have  no  outlet,  evaporation  must  go  on 
very  rapidly. 

Minerals. — The  metals  are  not  so  abundant  in  Asia  as  in 
the  other  continents,  but  it  is  rich  in  precious  stones.     Dia- 


monds abound  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  in  Ceylon,  and  iu«Borneo. 
Rubies,  turquoises,  carnelians,  amethysts,  beryls,  rock  crystals, 
and  other  gems  are  found.  Gold  is  most  abundant  in  Siberia, 
especially  in  the  Altai  or  "Gold  Mountains."  Silver  is  found 
in  Japan  and  China,  and  salt  abounds  in  all  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent.   The  coal  fields  of  China  are  very  extensive. 


AFRICA. 

(Physical.) 

DESCRIPTION. 


Coast. — 
The  coast  of 
Africa  is  not 
deeply  inden- 
ted, and,  as  its 
great  rivers 
have  many 
cataracts,  the 
heart  of  the  con- 
tinent is  not  yet 
open  to  the  com- 
merce  of  the 
world. 


Surface, — 
Africa  may   be 
considered  as  al 
vast  plateau, 
its  elevation  va- 
rying from  1,000 
to  9,000  feet. 
Along  nearly  the 
entire  coast  is  a 
lowland  belt  from  100 
to  300  miles  wide.      The 
highest  portion  of  the  con- 
tinent is  6,000  to  9,000  feet 
above  the  sea;  and  the 
south  half  has  an  elevation 
of  4,000  to  6,000  feet.     The  table-land  of  the  interior  is 
reached  by  a  series  of  broad  terraces. 

While  Africa,  as  a  whole,  is  a  plateau,  and  we  do  not 


find  that  diversity  of  surface 
seen  in  Europe,  or  the  mountain 
ranges,  the  lofty  plateaus,  and 
wonderful  valleys  that  make 
Asia  so  grand,  we  shall  see  lower 
plateaus  with  tropical  vegetation 
succeeded  by  desert  wastes;  hilly 
landscapes  of  varied  beauty,  and 
some  mountain  groups  rivaling 
the  scenery  of  the  Alps. 
The  most  hilly  and  mountainous  region  lies  along  the  eastern  coast,  be- 
ginning in  the  highlands  of  Abyssinia  and  extending  southward  some  distance 
beyond  the  Equator.     A  few  peaks  rise  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow. 
Mt.  Kenia,  about  20,000  feet,  and  Kilima  N'jaro,  22,814  feet,  are  of  this 
class,  and  are  the  highest  points  in  Africa.     The  Atlas  Mountains,  whose 
loftiest  summits  are  11,400  feet,  the  Kong,  near  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  and  the 
Camaroons,  are  the  other  important  ranges. 

The  Great  Desert. — The  Sahara  has  an  area  of  2,500,000  square  miles, 
or  a  little  more  than  two-thirds  the  area  of  the  United  States.    This  water- 
less ocean  was  once  covered  by  the  sea,  but  it  is  not,  as  pictured  in  the  old 
geographies,  a  "sea  of  sand,"  although  along  the  northern  borders  are  sand- 
hills, or  dunes,  that  are  formed  of  fine  particles  that  have  been 
driven  by  the  winds  to  accumulate  in  mounds  which  take  the 
form  of  the  billows  of  the  ocean. 

Several  low  ranges  of  mountains  are  found  in  the  desert,  and, 
though  they  lack  the  elevation  of  the  mountains  of  Europe, 
they  equal  the  Alps  or  the  Apennines  in  extent.  The  highest 
known  point  in  any  desert  range  is  7,900  feet. 

Nothing  can  be  imagined  more  utterly  dreary  and  awe-iusplring  than  a 
mountain  in  the  Sahara.  The  bare  rocks  absolutely  void  of  vegetation,  the 
dark,  gloomy  appearance  and  peculiar  outlines  of  the  masses  of  stone,  all 

much  more  even  than  the  extensive  sand  dunes,  remind  the  traveler  that  he  is  in  the 

"Great  Desert." 


Much  of  the  desert  is  occupied  by  table-lands  more  or  less  level. 
Some  are  strewn  with  sharp  stones  and  others  with  small  water- 
worn  pebbles.  There  are  a  few  plains  whose  surface  is  below  the 
sea  level,  but  they  are  of  small  extent. 

Wherever  water  is  found  in  a  valley  or  hollow  of  the  Sahara,  or 
where  hidden  springs  soak  through  the  soil,  or  water  is  supplied  by 
irrigation,  even  in  the  hardest  clay  or  the  most  unpromising  sands, 
there  spring  grass  and  herbs,  there  grows  the  palm  and  there  is  a 
fertile  spot — an  oasis. 

Oases  watered  by  rivers  are  only  found  near  the  base  of  mountains,  such  as  the 
Atlas  in  the  north.  In  the  whole  Sahara  there  is  not  a  river-bed  where  the  water  flows 
throughout  the  year, — all  rivers  evaporate  or  are  gradually  lost  in  the  sands.  But 
there  are  dry  river-beds,  and  many  places  where  lakes  have  once  been,  that  are  now 
incrusted  with  salt  that  glistens  like  snow  in  the  glaring  sunlight. 

From  all  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Great  Desert  is  not  a  level 
waste  of  drifting  sand,  but  a  region  of  rock-strewn  plateaus  with 
low,  desolate  mountains,  and  ridges  here  and  there;   of  hills  and 


la.  of  8t  Helena 


PHYSICAL  MAP  OF 

AFRICA 


AaJeofMllea 


0  200  too  eOO  800 


AFRICA— THE  RIVERS— THE  LAKES— MAP  STUDIES. 


31 


plains  of  sand ;  of  river  and  lake  beds,  all,  save  infrequent  oases, 
utterly  desolate. 

Rivers. — The  Nile,  the  Niger,  the  Congo,  and  the  Zambesi 
are  the  four  great  rivers  of  Africa.  All  are  obstructed  by  rap- 
ids, and  for  this  reason  they  do  not  afford  easy  access  to  the 
interior  of  the  continent. 

The  Nile  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  rivers  of  the  globe. 
In  the  valley  of  the  Lower  Nile  lived  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
whose  civilization  began  thousands  of  years  ago.  Here  are  the 
pyramids,  here  reigned  the  Pharaohs,  and  here  the  Israelites 
toiled  as  bondmen. 

Rising  in  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza,  under  the  Equator,  the 
White,  or  true  Nile,  flows  over  a  space  of  more  than  30°  of 
latitude.  In  its  upper  course  it  is  a  rapid  stream  with  many 
waterfalls.  From  about  the  mouth  of  the  Bahr  el  Arab  to  its 
junction  with  the  Blue  Nile  at  Khartoum  it  has  a  sluggish 
appearance,  often  spreading  out  into  broad  lakes  with  no  sign 
of  current  except  in  time  of  flood. 

The  Blue  Nile  and  the  Athara,  or  "Black  River,"  are  large  streams  rising 
in  the  Alpine  regions  of  Abyssinia.  They  receive  their  names  from  the  color 
of  their  water  which,  at  certain  seasons,  is  flUed  with  slime  that  goes  to  fertilize 
the  plains  below. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Atbara  to  the  sea,  some  1,500  miles,  the  river 
receives  no  tributary,  yet,  notwithstanding  the  sandy,  heated  region  through 
which  it  flows,  it  continues  a  mighty  stream,  capable  of  watering  the  plains 
of  Egypt  every  year. 

Basin  of  the  Nile. — Lake  Victoria  Nyanza  is  about  4,000 
feet  above  the  Mediterranean.  North  of  the  lake  the  river 
crosses  a  rolling,  picturesque  country,  with  rocky  hills  and 
fertile  valleys  interspersed  with  jungles  where  large  herds  of 
buffaloes  and  elephants  are  seen.  Further  down  are  low  marshy 
regions  bordered  by  level  steppes  stretching  to  the  horizon  in 
all  directions.  These  plains  are  strewn  with  the  conical  mounds 
of  the  termite,  or  white  ant,  and  with  patches  of  brush  wood. 
Then  come  tropical  forests,  with  innumerable  monkeys;  half- 
barren  steppes,  and  the  great  Nubian  Desert,  which  is  usually 
crossed  by  caravans  of  camels,  the  journey  requiring  many 
days. 

The  route  winds  through  a  succession  of  bare  gorges  walled  in  by  high 
rocks;  over  stony  plateaus  and  across  rocky  ridges.  Only  a  few  of  the  deeper 
valleys  have  moisture  sufficient  to  support  a  few  palms  and  mimosas  or  to  give 
scanty  food  for  gazelles. 

•'  Most  parts  of  the  desert  are  without  the  least  trace  of  life,  and  the  track 
is  marked  out  by  the  remains  of  fallen  camels.  Excessive  dryness  and  heat 
prevent  these  from  decaying,  and  the  skin  becomes  like  parchment  drawn  over 
the  skeleton.  The  mirage  is  almost  continuous;  the  horizon  appears  like  a 
wide  sea,  and  mountains  far  beyond  the  limit  of  vision  are  frequently  seen 
reversed  in  the  air  as  if  standing  ou  their  summits,  while  others  take  the  form 
of  castle  towers." 

Cataracts. —  The  lower  cataracts  of  the  Nubian  Nile  are  not  waterfalls. 
The  second,  or  Great  Cataract,  looks  like  a  walled  lake  whose  waves  are  dash- 


ing against  the  rock-border  that  towers  in  numberless  clifls,  and  against  islands 
of  red  and  yellow  sandstone.  The  unlimited  desert  stretches  away  on  either 
hand.  At  the  lower  cataract,  black  rock  masses  rise  abruptly  from  the  foam- 
ing current,  and  blocks  fallen  from  them  form  islets  150  to  200  feet  in  height. 

At  last,  the  river  enters  a  valley,  which,  above  the  delta,  is 
about  500  miles  in  length  with  an  average  breadth  of  but  seven 
miles.  On  either  side  of  the  valley,  walling  it  in,  are  continu- 
ous ridges  of  barren  limestone  hills,  beyond  which  extend  arid 
deserts  — pictures  of  desolation  save  where  a  few  oases  lift  their 
palms.  The  valley  itself  is  naturally  barren,  but  every  year  for 
thousands  of  years  it  has  been  innundated,  the  whole  plain 
being  a  sheet  of  water,  the  villages  forming  islands. 

The  river  begins  to  rise  about  June  25th,  and  reaches  its  greatest  height 
near  the  21st  of  September.  At  Thebes  the  flood  is  40  feet;  at  Cairo,  37;  at 
Rosetta,  4.  After  the  flood  subsides,  the  surface  is  found  covered  by  the  fine, 
rich  mold  which  has  made  this  valley  so  productive  further  back  than  history 
can  tell. 

The  Congo  is  by  far  the  most  copious  stream  of  the  conti- 
nent, and  one  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  world.  At  its  mouth  it 
is  6  miles  wide  and  150  fathoms  deep.  Where  it  bursts  through 
the  mountains  from  the  table-lands  its  channel  is  interrupted  by 
almost  continuous  cataracts,  some  thirty  of  them  occurring  in  a 
distance  of  40  miles. 

Above  the  cataracts  the  river  has  a  width  of  4  to  5  miles,  and  is  navigable 
to  .Stanley  Falls,  nearly  1,000  miles.  Above  these  it  is  again  navigable  for  a 
long  distance.  The  Congo  drains  an  area  nearly  one-half  as  large  as  that  of 
the  United  States.     It  has  been  called  the  Amazon  of  Africa. 

The  Lakes. —  Not  long  ago.  Equatorial  Africa  was  marked 
on  the  map  as  an  unexplored  region.  At  that  time,  the  conti- 
nent was  thought  to  be  without  lakes,  except  Tchad,  south  of 
the  Sahara;  but  it  is  now  known  that  its  great  lakes  rank  next 
to  those  of  North  America 

Victoria  Nyanza  is  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water  with  long 
reaches  of  lovely  and  picturesque  shore.  Stanlfey  sailed  en- 
tirely round  it  in  his  little  boat,  "The  Lady  Alice,"  the  voy- 
age occupying  ninety  days. 

Lake  Tanganyika  is  some  450  miles  in  length.  Captain  Bur- 
ton, an  English  explorer,  thus  describes  it: 

"Nothing  can  be  more  picturesque  than  this  first  view  of  Tanganyika  as  it 
lies  ba.sking  in  the  gorgeous,  tropical  sunshine.  Beyond  a  short  foreground  of 
rugged  and  precipitous  hills,  a  narrow  plot  of  emerald  green  shelves  toward 
a  ribband  of  glistening  yellow  sand,  here  bordered  by  sedgy  rushes,  there  clear, 
and  clean  cut  by  the  breaking  w.avelets.  ' 

"Further  in  front  stretches  an  expanse  of  the  lightest,  softest  blue,  varying 
from  thirty  to  tliirty-five  miles  in  breadth,  and  sprinkled  by  the  east  wind  with 
crescents  of  snowy  foam.  It  is  bounded  on  the  otlier  side  by  tall  and  broken 
walls  of  purple  hills,  flecked  and  capped  with  peiirly  mist,  or  standing  sharply 
penciled  against  the  azure  sky.  To  the  south,  and  opposite  a  low  point,  lie 
high,  bluft'  headlands  and  capes,  and,  as  the  eye  dilates,  it  falls  ujjon  outlying 
islets  specking  a  sea  horizon.  Villages,  cultivated  lands,  and  the  freouent 
canoes  of  the  fishermen  give  something  of  life  to  the  scene." 


MAP  STUDIES. 


General  Questions. —  What  continent  most  resembles  Africa  in  the  charac- 
ter of  its  coast?  Are  there  many  or  few  islands  near  the  coast.  Are  the 
indentations  of  the  coast  favorable  or  unfavorable  to  trade?  Where  are  the 
mountains  of  the  continent  situated  ?  What  portions  of  the  continent  are 
most  elevated  ?  Ou  the  whole,  is  the  surface  diversified  or  monotonous  ? 
Where  are  the  great  lakes  ?  What  portion  of  the  continent  is  best  watered  ? 
What  portion  receives  the  most  rain?  Give  a  reason  for  your  conclusion.  Are 
there  many  or  few  rivers? 

Does  the  latitude  show  a  temperate  or  a  hot  climate  ?  Which  portion  of  the 
continent  has  the  dryest  climate ?    Why  does  it  not  rain  in  the  Sahara? 

•  What  is  the  length,  and  what  is  the  breadth,  of  the  continent  as  determined 


by  the  scale?     Which  is  the  longest  river?     Which  is  the  longest  lake ?     Give 
the  length  and  width  of  the  Great  Desert. 

EXERCISES.— Locate  and  describe  the  coast  waters,  islands,  moun- 
tains, deserts,  lakes,  and  chief  rivers. 

Sketch  the  coast,  mountains,  deserts,  lakes,  and  rivers. 

Comparison  of  Continents. — Name  the  continents  in  the  order  of  their 
size.  Which  continent  has  the  longest  coast  line  in  proportion  to  its  area? 
Considering  its  coast  lines,  its  lakes  and  rivers,  which  continent  oilers  the  best 
natural  advantages  for  commerce?  Which  continent  is  longest  from  north 
to  south?  Which  from  east  to  west?  Which  continent  has  the  longest 
mountain  ranges?  Which  has  the  most  extensive  plains?  Deserts?  Plateaus? 
Which  continent  has  the  least,  and  which  the  most,  diversified  surface  ?  Over 
which  continents  are  the  streams  most  evenly  distributed  ?  How  many  of  the 
continents  lie  in  three  zones?  On  the  whole,  which  are  the  warmest  conti- 
nents' 


ISLANDS. 


CLASSES  OF  ISLANDS. 

Islands  are  of  two  classes,  continental  and  oceanic.  Though 
almost  innumerable,  they  form  scarcely  one-seventeenth  of  the 
land  surface  of  the  earth. 

The  continental  islands  were  once  parts  of  the  continents, 
having  the  same  kind  of  rock,*the  same  plants  and  large  ani- 
mals. They  are  of  all  sizes,  from  mere  specks  in  the  ocean  up 
to  the  size  of  the  British  Isles,  or  Australia. 

Oceanic  islands  lie  in  the  midst  of  the  oceans,  and  are 
usually  in  groups.  There  are  two  classes  of  oceanic  islands — 
the  Mgh  and  the  low.  The  former  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
they  often  have  cones  with  craters  still  active.  The  latter  are 
the  tops  of  coral  reels,  just  above  the  sea. 

Coral  islands  are  found  only  in  the  warm  waters  of  tropical 
seas.  They  are  sometimes  in  the  form  of  a  circle  inclosing 
a  basin  or  lagoon  of  salt  water,  but  the  ring  is  often  broken 
into  small  islands,  still  forming  a  circular  line  of  islets  on 
which  grow  the  noble 
cocoanut  palm  and 
other  tropical  plants. 

The  high  volcanic 
islands  are  sometimes 
encircled  by  coral 
reefs,  the  cones  tak- 
ing the  place  of  the 
lagoons. 

Tlie  conil  islands  are 
the  work  of  iiiarineanimals 
called  polyps,  which  live 
in  conntless  numbers  in 
warm  seas  not  crossed  by 
cold  ocean  currents.  These 
silent,  tiny  toilers  of  the  sea 
have  been  named  "world 
builders."  They  live  in 
societies  and  do  not  work 
at  a  depth  below  twenty 
five  fathoms,  and,  hence, 
build  on  a  foundation 
which  tliey  find  on  sub- 
marine cones  and  pea,ks.  As  their  structures  are  reared  around  the  peaks,  they 
have  the  same  circular  form  as  the  peaks  themselves. 

The  substance  composing  the  coral  is  lime,  secreted  from  the  waters  of  the 
sea  and  dejwsited  between  the  outer  and  inner  skins,  or  sacs,  that  imv^  the 
cylindrical  body  of  the  polyp.  This  lining  substance  is  to  tlie  polyp  the  same 
as  the  bones  in  the  higher  animals.  The  polyps  not  only  multii)ly  by  eggs,  but 
by  budding,  like  plants,  so  that  one  generation  seems  to  grow  out  of  another, 
and,  as  each  generation  dies,  it  leaves  behind  the  soUd  limestone  secreted  by  it. 
This  substance  is  what  we  call  coral. 

The  following  extract  from  Eeclus  will  show  how  the  coral 

islands  are  gradually  fitted  to  be  the  abode  of  man: 

"The  waves  break  in  pieces  the  projecting  stems,  and,  lifting  up  the  looser 
fragments  of  coral,  drive  them  outward  to  the  highest  point  of  the  reef. 
There,  by  degrees,  they  form  a  bank  of  debris  on  which  the  breakers  beat,  and 
bring  from  the  open  sea,  sand,  broken  shells,  and  the  remains  of  the  innumera- 
ble organisms  which  swarm  in  the  ocean.  Enriched  by  these  additions  brought 
to  them  by  the  waves,  the  calcareous  bank  becomes  covered  here  and  there  by 
a  thin  layer  of  vegetable  soil,  where,  sooner  or  later,  some  seed  germinates 
which  has  been  carried  away  by  the  currents,  as  it  washed  the  coast  of  some 
distant  land. 

"A  few  land  plants  embellish  with  their  verdure  the  gray  and  monotonous 
coast;  after  a  time  trees  take  root  there;  then  insects  and  worms,  carried  along 
on  driftwood  as  if  on  rafts,  begin  to  x>opulate  the  incipient  groves;  bij-ds  resort 
hither  to  hide  their  nests  among  tlieir  foliage;  and  at  last,  :is  it  often  happens, 
some  fishing  party,  attracted  from  afar  by  the  beauty  of  the  site,  come  and  take 
possession  of  the  new  land,  and  build  their  huts  on  the  edge  of  a  spring  which 
had  been  gradually  formed  in  some  cavity  by  the  subterranean  filtering  of  the 
rain  water." 


COMPARATIVE  HEIGHTS  OF  PRINCIPAL  MOUNTAINS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


N.  AMEEICA. 


S.  AMERICA. 


I,  Chilian  Andes;  2  Pass  of  Cumbre;  3,  Colombian  Anilm; 
4,  City  of  Quito;  .'i,  Bolivian  Andes ;  6,  l.akeTiticaca;  ".Peru- 
vian Andes;  8,  Andes  of  Patagonia ;  9,  West  India  Islands: 
10,  Mts.  of  Venezuela;  11,  Mts.  of  Brazil;  12,  13,  Table-land 
and  >Its.  of  Mexico ;  14,  Rocky  Mts.;  15,  Ca.-^cade  Range ;  16, 
Great  Salt  Lake;  17,  Sierra  Nevadaj  18,  Alleghany  Mts.;  19, 
Sandwichlslands;  20,  Mt.  Erebus  (Victoria  Land);  21,  Society 
Islands ;  22,  New  Zealand. 


AUSTRALIA. 

^Australia,  the  largest  island  on  the  globe,  is  by  many  geog- 
raphera  called  a  continent.  It  ranks  but  little  below  Euroiie 
in  size,  its  area  being  somewhat  less  than  3,000,000  square  miles. 

Coast. — Its  coast  is  very  monotonous.     Nearly  parallel  with 

it,  on  the  east,  and  about  sixty  miles  from  it,  is  the  "Great" 

Barrier  Eeef,"  1,200  miles  in  length.     In  this  distance  there  is 

but  one  safe  opening  for  ships. 

The  Great  Barrier  Keef  is  70  milcjs  wide  at  its  southern  extremity,  but 
its  average  width  is  much  less.  Tlie  channel  between  it  and  the  shore  is 
some  15  miles  across,  but  navigation  is  dangerous  on  account  of  numerous 
sunken  reefs.  Here  and  there  are  openings  to  the  ocean,  some  very  narrow, 
others  several  miles  wide.  There  are  atolls,  fringing  reefs,  and  every  kind  of 
coral  formation.  The  entire  reef  with  its  numerous  islands  has  an  area  of  ,30,- 
000  square  miles.  This  mighty  barrier  against  which  the  ocean  has  dashed, 
age  after  age,  is  the  work  of  the  minute  polyp  we  have  described. 

The  northern  and  the  southern  coasts  have  no  deep  indenta- 
tions, but  the  western  is  richer  in  bights  and  inlets,  and  has 
several  good  harbors. 

Surface. — Highlands  are  found  in  the  east,  and,  to  a  limited 

extent,  in  the  west. 
These  highlands  are 
generally  hilly  pla- 
teaus of  no  great  ele- 
vation. The  gorges 
through  which  the 
streams  flow  from  the 
hills  are  usually  deep 
and  difficult  of  access. 
Mountains  with  rug- 
ged sides  often  rise 
from  the  table-lands. 

The  interior  of  Aus- 
tralia consists  of  lowlands 
forming  some  of  tlie  most 
desolate  regions  of  the 
globe.  Tlie  soi  1  is  sandy  or 
clayey,  of  a  red  color,  and 
in  many  places  contains 
salt.  There  are  no  springs, 
but  at  rare  intervals  the 
rain  pours  in  a  deluge,  converting  the  land  into  a  swamp.  In  the  dry  season 
which  follows,  the  soil  is  baked  and  becomes  almost  like  stone. 

Lakes. — The  lake  district  of  Australia  is  nearly  1,000  miles 
in  extent  from  southeast  to  northwest.  Some  of  the  lakes  are 
more  than  100  miles  iu  length,  but  they  are  subject  to  great 
changes  in  size  because  their  water  sui)ply  depends  wholly  upon 
the  rainfall.  And  where  broad  sheets  of  water  are  seen  at  one 
time  grassy  plains  appear  at  another. 

All  the  lakes  are  salt,  and  around  them  are  sand  ridges  or  salt-crusted  mud- 
plains  iu  which  men  and  beasts  sink  and  are  lost.  For  hundreds  of  miles  the 
arid  plains  are  covered  with  porcupine  griuss  which  grows  in  bunches  or  tus- 
socks. The  sharp  spines  of  this  grass  tear  the  clothes  and  flesh  of  explorers, 
and  injure  the  feet  of  horses  so  that  they  are  often  lamed  and  even  killed. 

Rivers. — The  riv^ers  of  the  lowland  region  flow  inland,  and 
are  lost  in  the  sands  or  shallow  lakes.  Nearly  all  the  streams 
are  subject  to  the  influence  of  drought  and  flood.  In  the  east- 
ern portion  of  the  island,  especially,  great  floods  occur  at  long 
intervals,  the  streams  rise  suddenly  and  carry  destruction  over 
large  areas.  Sometimes  the  rain  fails  for  years,  deep  streams 
have  not  a  drop  of  water  in  their  beds,  not  a  blade  of  grass  cau 
grow,  and  large  numbers  of  cattle  die  of  hunger  or  thirst. 

♦See  map  of  Oceania, 


1 ,  Alps;  2,  Pyrenees;  3,  Apennines;  4,  Carpathian  Mts.;  5, 
Dovrefeld  Hits.;  6,  British  Islands;  7,  Ural  Mts.;  8,  Caucasus 
Mts.;  9,  Hindoo  Koosh:  10,  Himalayas;  11,  Kuen-Lun;  12, 
Taurus  Mts.;  13,  Altai  Mts.;  14,  Mt.Sin.-ii;  l.'i,  StannovoiMts.; 
16,  Kilmandjaro;  17,  Mts.  of  Abyssinia;  IS,  Atlas  Mts.;  19, 
Cape  Verde  Islands ;  20,Pcak  of  Teneriife;  21,Cameroons;  22, 
Madagascar;  23,  Snow  Mts.;  24,  Table  Mt.;  25,  Sumatra ;  26, 
Borneo;  27,  Java;  28,  Australia. 


32 


THE    SEA. 


Size  —  Oceans. —  The  sea  is  a  body  of  salt  water  encircling 
the  globe  and  covering  three-fourths  of  its  surface.  The  con- 
tinents divide  it  into  parts  called  oceans. 

The  Pacific  Ocean  is  the  largest.     It  contains  more  than 

half  the  waters  of  the  sea. 

Before  1513,  this  immense  body  of  water  was  unknown  to  Europeans.  In 
that  year  it  was  discovered  by  Balboa,  a  Spaniard,  who  crossed  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama.  The  part  of  the  ocean  seen  from  the  mountains  of  the  isthmus  lay 
to  the  south,  and  from  this  it  received  the  name,  "South  Sea."  Magellan,  a 
navigator  who  crossed  tlie  ocean  in  1521,  named  it  the  Pacific,  because  he 
encountered  no  storms  during  his  voyage. 

The  Atlantic  is  about  half  the  size  of  the  Pacific,  and  it 
contains  only  a  quarter  of  the  water  surface  of  the  globe. 

The  Indian  Ocean  is  next  in  size  to  the  Atlantic.  The  Arctic 
is  really  but  a  part  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the  Antarctic  is  hardly 
to  be  regarded  as  separate  from  the  great  body  of  the  sea. 

Depth  of  the  Oceans. —  The  average  depth  of  the  Atlantic 
is  not  far  from  15,000  feet.  The  deepest  soundings  near  the 
island  of  St.  Thomas  gave  23,200  feet,  but  there  are  few  places 
where  the  line  goes  below  18,000  feet.  The  Pacific  has  deeper 
tracts,  but  its  average  appears  to  be  about  the  same  as  that 


of  the  Atlantic.  The  greatest 
depths  yet  accurately  meas- 
ured are  about  4}  or  5  miles. 
The  Indian  Ocean  is  supposed 
to  be  of  great  depth. 

Bottom  of  the  Sea.— The 
sea  has  its  long  and  gentle, 
and  its  more  abrupt  slopes; 
its  plateaus,  valleys,  and 
plains,  similar  to  those  of  the 
land.  In  the  vicinity  of  the 
continents  it  is  often  shallow 
for  a  great  distance  from  the 
coast.  Mountain  chains  are 
not  found  except  near  the  continents  of  which  they  form  a  part. 
Extensive  plains  and  broad  table-lands  are  the  rule 

Forces  are  ceaselessly  operating  to  level  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Hun- 
dreds of  rivers  are  bringing  down  their  deposits  of  soil  and  sand,  and  the  dead 
bodies  of  countless  millions  of  tiny  creatures  are  falling  like  snowflakes  from 
the  upper  strata  of  the  water  and  slowly  filling  up  its  valleys. 

The  bottom  of  the  sea  is  strewn  with  the  shells  of  creatures  so  minute  that 
an  ounce  of  sand  often  contains  a  quarter  of  a  million.  The  remains  of  some 
species  cover  thousands  of  square  miles,  and  when  the  lead  brings  up  ooze  it  is 
often  found  to  be  composed  of  80  to  90  per  cent  of  skeletons. 

Saltness  of  the  Sea. — The  waters  of  the  sea  are  salt  in 
all  parts,  but  their  saltness  is  greatest  in  the  Torrid  Zone, 
where  the  trade  winds  blow  and  evaporation  goes  on  most 
rapidly.  It  diminishes  toward  the  poles,  and  is  less  in  the 
vicinity  of  great  rivers  where  fresh  and  salt  water  are  mingled. 

Origin  of  Saltness. —  Much  saline  matter  is  carried  by  rivers  into  the  sea, 
and  as  the  water  evaporates  the  salt  is  left  behind,  the  same  as  in  the  case  of 
brine  left  in  a  tub  to  "dry  up  "  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  Supposing  the  sea  to 
have  been  fresh  at  first,  it  would,  in  this  way,  finally  become  salt. 

Color  of  the  Sea. — A  glass  of  sea-water  is  of  crystal  clear- 
ness, but,  viewed  from  a  distance,  the  ocean  in  tropical  latitudes 
is  of  a  deep  blue,  while  in  the  direction  of  the  poles  it  is  of  a 
greenish  hue.  Its  hue  often  depends  on  the  color  of  the  bottom, 
on  plants  growing  in  the  waters,  or  on  its  myriads  of  animated 
creatures. 


THE  PACIFIC  AND  THE  ATLANTIC  OCEAN. 


"At  dawn  the  surface  of  the  water  is  gently  brightened  by  the  glimmering 
of  the  atmosphere,  as  yet  pale  and  fiilnt;  then  the  sparkling  of  the  waves 
becomes  more  brilliant,  and  the  full  light  of  day  pours  a  flood  of  fire  upon  the 
billows.  The  least  movement  in  the  air  is  betrayed  by  a  change  in  the  aspect 
of  the  water;  every  cloud  in  passing  mirrors  itself  with  the  forms  and  shades 
of  its  vapors;  every  breath  of  wind  that  just  curls  the  waves  renews  the  har- 
mony of  changed  coloring  on  the  face  of  the  ocean,  and  when  evening  comes 
the  sea  reflects  back  to  the  sky  all  its  splendor  of  purple  and  flame."* 

Waves. — The  sea  seldom  presents  a  smooth  surface.  It  is 
only  now  and  then,  when  the  winds  are  at  rest,  that  the  waters 
are  like  a  mirror,  reflecting  the  stars  and  all  other  objects 
with  clear  outlines.  Usually,  the  wind,  in  breeze  or  tempest, 
raises  the  surface  into  waves  that  move  forward  regularly,  or 
are  dashed  across  one  another,  forming  what  sailors  call  a 
"chopped  sea." 

The  height  and  speed  of  the  waves  are  determined  by  the  strength  of  the 
wind,  the  depth  and  saltness  of  the  water.  In  the  Mediterranean  the  tempest 
waves  rise  from  13  to  18  feet  above  the  trough  of  the  sea.  In  the  North 
Atlantic  the  average  height  of  the  largest  waves  is  19  feet,  but  navigators 
have  measured  those  which  were  over  43  feet.  Off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
waves  of  50  and  60  feet  are  not  uncommon. 

The  Bell  Rock  lighthouse,  off  the  coast  of  Scotland,  rises  112  feet  above 
the  rock  on  which  it  is  built,  yet  its  top  is  often  enveloped  in  waves  and  spray 
after  the  fury  of  the  tempest  is  past.  Waves  sometimes  entirely  cover  the 
Eddystone  lighthouse,  whose  lantern  is  72  feet  above  high-water  mark,  and  it 
is  stated  that  jets  of  water  have  been  thrown  80  feet  higher  than  its  light. 

The  water  does  not  move 


forward  with  the  wave,  but 
remains  almost  at  rest.  This 
may  be  understood  by  watch- 
ing the  waves  that  pass  in 
succession  over  a  field  of  grain, 
or  a  forest — the  grain  and  trees 
remain  rooted  while  the  form 
of  the  wave  sweeps  on. 

Tides. — The  waters  of  the 
ocean  are  moved  not  only  by 
the  winds  but  by  a  force  called 
attraction,  exerted  by  the 
moon  and  the  sun.  Every 
day  dwellers  on  the  sea-coasts  see  its  waters  sweU  and  fall  in 
regular  movements.  Twice  every  day  vast  plains  of  sand  are 
covered,  and  bays  are  filled  by  the  rising  waters;  twice  a  day 
rivulets  are  changed  to  rivers,  and  basins  of  mud  to  harbors. 
Six  hours  later  the  sands  are  again  bare,  the  mud  has  reap- 
peared, and  ships  lie  aground  in  the  harbors.  These  move- 
ments of  the  waters  are  called  tides. 

When  the  water  rises  the  tide  is  said  to  flow;  when  it 
recedes,  it  ebbs.  The  rising  sea  is  flood-tide,  and  the  falling,  ebb- 
tide. The  time  between  two  high  tides,  or  two  low  tides,  is 
12  h.,  56min.,  and  the  time  of  any  tide  comes  fifty-two  minutes 
later  every  day. 

Cause  of  Tides. — The  solid  portions  of  the  earth  and  the 
water  are  alike  drawn  or  attracted  by  the  moon,  but  the  parti- 
cles composing  the  water  are  alone  free  to  move,  and  they  are 
lifted  up,  as  seen  in  the  diagram  at  B,  in  a  broad  and  increasing 
swell,  following  the  moon  in  its  journey  from  east  to  west  over 
the  sea.  As  the  tidal  wave  reaches  the  shore  the  waters  rise, 
and  for  six  hours  there  is  flood-tide.  After  the  moon  passes 
on,  the  waters  recede,  and  for  six  hours  the  tide  ebbs. 

While  this  swell  is  following  the  moon,  as  just  described, 

*  Consult  Heclus's  Ocean, 


33 


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THE  SEA— TIDES  — OCEAN  CUEEENTS. 


36 


another  swell  is  formed  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  earth,  as  at 
A,  where  the  attraction  of  the  moon  is  weaker,  and  the  waters 
tend  to  fall  away  from  the  solid  kernel  of  the  earth.  So  there 
are  always  two  high  waters  under  the  moon  on  opposite  sides  of 


a«^'"'f- 


..?.?*?•'"- ''■■Z^---' 

SPRINO  AND    NEAP  TIDES. 


the  earth,  and  two  low  waters  at  equal  distances  between  them. 

As  the  earth  turns  on  its  axis  every  twenty-four  hours,  two 

swells  and  two  troughs  travel  over  every  part  of  the  ocean  in 

that  time,  causing  a  regular  succession  of  tides  moving  in  a 

direction  opposite  the  motion  of  the  earth. 

At  new  moon,  when  the  sun  and 
moon  are  in  the  same  part  of  the 
'^^^^  heavens,  and  at  full  moon,  when  the 
sun  and  moon  are  in  opposite  quarters, 
the  sun  adds  its  powerful  force  to  that 
of  the  moon,  or,  in  other  words,  their 
influences  coincide,  and  the  tides  are 
very  high,  and  are  called  spring  tides. 
When  the  moon  is  at  its  first  and  third 

quarter,  the  sun  acts  in  opposition  to  the  moon,  the  tides  are 

low,  and  are  called  neap  tides.     See  diagram. 

The  course  of  the  tidal  waves  is  changed  or  greatly  modiiied  by  the  forms 
of  continents,  and  the  waves  are  sometimes  broken  up  by  numberless  islands. 
In  mid  ocean  tlie  tide  is  only  2  to  5  feet  in  height.  On  the  eastern  coast  of 
North  America  it  is  from  8  to  12,  but  iu  the  narrow  Bay  of  Fundy  it  rises  to 
60  or  70  feet.      In  the  English  Channel  the  spring  tides  reach  40  or  50  feet. 

Where  the  advancing  tide  meets  the  current  of  a  great  river, 
the  contending  wave,  like  a  mighty  wall  of  water,  moves  up  the 
stream,  often  for  hundreds  of  miles,  or  to  the  limit  of  tide- 
water, forming  what  is  called  a  bore. 

At  the  mouths  of  some  rivers,  such  as  the  Seine,  the  Elbe,  the  Weser,  the 
Hoogbly,  and  the  Amazon,  the  bore,  at  the  period  of  high  tides,  becomes  an 
enormous  wave.  The  bore  of  the  Amazon,  called  by  the  Indians  po-ro-ro-ca, 
because  of  its  roaring,  rises  iu  three  successive  waves,  attaining  together  a 
height  of  30  to  50  feet.  Not  suspecting  the  flood,  vessels  are  in  great  danger 
of  capsizing. 

Ocean  Currents. — The  waters  of  the  sea  are  never  at  rest. 
The  heat  of  the  sun  and  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis 
produce  movements  in  the  oceans  grander  than  the  waves  or 
the  tides.  These  forces  carry  the  cold  waters  from  the  polar 
seas  to  the  equatorial  regions,  and  the  warm  waters  from  thence 
in  the  direction  of  the  poles.  They  form  ocean  rivers  hundreds 
of  miles  in  width,  and  of  vast  depth.  The  mightiest  rivers  on 
land  are  but  rills  when  compared  with  the  streams  that  flow 
through  the  sea.  The  courses  of  these  ocean  rivers  may  be 
traced  by  the  temperature  and  color  of  their  waters,  by  the 
creatures  living  in  them,  and  by  the  debris  they  bear  along 
in  their  journeys  from  clime  to  clime. 

Causes  of  Currents.^ The  unequal  distribution  of  the 
sun's  heat  over  the  earth's  surface  and  the  rotation  of  the 
earth  on  its  axis  are  the  chief  causes  of  ocean  currents.     Cold 


water  is  heavier  than  warm,  and  the  cold  waters  toward  the 
poles  tend  constantly  to  flow  into  and  displace  the  warm 
waters  of  the  Torrid  Zone.  Were  the  earth  at  rest,  and  were 
there  no  land,  there  would  be  a  slow  but  ceaseless  flow  of  cold 
water  in  a  direct  line  from  the  poles  to  the  Equator,  and  of 
warm  water  from  the  Equator  to  the  poles,  giving  rise  to  two 
currents — an  upper,  warm  current,  and  an  under,  cold  current. 
But  the  earth  turns  on  its  axis  from  west  over  to  east.  Its 
rate  of  motion  at  the  Equator  is  1,000  miles  an  hour;  at  the 
60th  parallel,  500  miles;  at  the  poles  it  is  diminished  to  zero. 
The  water  of  slow-moving  polar  regions  flowing  to  fast-mov- 
ing equatorial  regions  cannot  acquire  the  increased  eastward 
speed  of  the  latter,  and  it  is  left  more  and  more  behind  the 
meridians  on  which  it  started  —  the  bottom  of  the  sea  passing 
eastward  under  it — and  instead  of  reaching  the  Equator  due 
south  or  due  north  of  the  place  of  starting,  it  reaches  it  many 
degrees  westward. 

The  polar  currents  are  thus  made  to  bend  westward,  and, 
meeting  within  the  tropics,  form  the  Great  Equatorial  Current 
that  encircles  the  earth,  save  where  it  is  broken  or  turned 
aside  by  the  land. 

It  is  thus  that  the  equatorial  current  and  two  polar  cur- 
rents are  produced.  All  other  currents,  or  rivers  of  the  sea, 
are  but  branches  of  these,  caused  by  the  forms  of  the  land. 

Gulf  Stream.* — The  Gulf  Stream  is  a  branch  of  the  equa- 
torial current  of  the  Atlantic,  a  part  of  which  passes  through 
the  Carribean  Sea  and  a  part  further  east,  as  shown  on  the  chart. 
The  name  was  given  when  it  was  thought  that  its  waters  made 
the  circuit  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Its  current  is  fully  apparent  north  of  the  island  of  Cuba. 
At  its  narrowest  part  it  is  some  37  miles  wide  and  200  fathoms 
deep.  The  width  of  the  stream  increases  and  its  depth  dimin- 
ishes until,  as  it  approaches  Europe,  it  spreads  out,  like  a  fan, 
over  the  Atlantic.  Its  color  is  of  a  beautiful  azure,  and  its  tem- 
perature is  so  much  warmer  than  the  bordering  ocean  that  the 
fish  and  other  inhabitants  of  the  Torrid  Zone  follow  its  course, 
while  the  birds  of  summer  lands  fly  far  to  the  northward, 
hovering  in  the  warm  air  above  the  current.  On  the  contrary, 
the  Greenland  whale  and  other  animals  of  northern  seas  shun 
the  Gulf  Stream  as  though  it  were  a  belt  of  flame. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  Grand  Banks  of  Newfoundland  the 
outskirts  of  the  Gulf  Stream  are  met  by  the  united  Greenland 
currents  with  their  icebergs,  and  their  waters  chill  and  con- 
dense the  warm  vapors,  giving  rise  to  the  thick  and  everlasting 
fogs  peculiar  to  that  I'egion.  The  icebergs  borne  southward 
from  the  immense  glaciers  of  Greenland  are  rapidly  thawed 
by  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream  into  which  they  are 
carried. 

iThe  broad  plateau  knovra  as  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland  was  undoubtedly 
built  up  by  the  meeting  of  these  conflicting  currents,  which  drop  their  sand,and 
the  icebergs  their  roeks,in  the  contending  waters. 

The  Gulf  Stream  crosses  the  entire  Atlantic  at  an  average  rate  of  twenty- 
four  miles  a  day,  though  iu  the  vicinity  of  the  Bahamas  it  flows  over  three 
miles  an  hour.  Seeds,  trunks  of  trees,  timbers  of  wrecked  ships,  and  other 
works  of  human  hands  have  been  borne  by  the  Gulf  Stream  from  South  America 
and  other  portions  of  the  New  World  to  the  western  shores  of  Europe.  It 
was  such  remains  that  famished  Columbus  evidence  of  an  unknown  world 
across  the  sea. 

Sometimes  that  portion  of  the  Atlantic  east  of  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland 
assumes  the  appearance  of  the  Arctic  Sea.  Icebergs,  like  ships,  pass  majestic- 
ally through  the  waves  which  dash  against  them.     Enormoos  blocks  have  been 

*  Study  map  on  page  34  at  this  point. 


36 


THE  ATMOSPHEEE— DEPTH  OF  AIE. 


seen,  300  to  400  feet  high,  and  measuring  at  least  seven  times  that  distance 
below  the  surface  of  the  water.  Those  parts  of  the  huge  masses  that  rise  above 
the  surface  often  have  the  appearance  of  pinnacles.      The  summit  is  white 


and  occasionally  covered  with  snow.  The  sides  are  pierced  with  holes,  or 
caves,  through  which  the  water  rushes  with  a  hollow  murmur,  or  springs  in 
jets.  Silver  fountains  occasionally  burst  alternately  from  either  side  of  the  ice- 
berg as  it  is  tipped  by  the  waves.    Hundreds  of  ships  have  been  lost  by  striking 


against  these  monsters,  unseen  in  the  dense  fog.  Whole  archipelagoes  of  ice  are 
occasionally  met.  A  British  brig,  off  Cape  Race,  remained  twenty-nine  days 
surrounded  by  towers  and  threatening  peaks  of  ice. 

Looking  at  the  map,  we  see  that  most  of  Europe  lies  in 
what  should  be  the  Cool  Temperate  Zone.  Yet,  in  Southern 
France,  as  far  north  as  St.  Paul,  flourish  the  olive,  the  mul- 
berry, and  the  vine.  Berlin,  the  capital  of  the  German  Empire, 
and  all  of  England,  are  further  north  than  the  northern  bound- 
ary of  Minnesota,  but  their  climate  is  not  rigorous.  Roses 
bloom  in  England  in  October,  and  the  "Emerald  Isle  of  the 
Seas"  is  so  named  because  of  its  green  fields.  The  lakes  of 
the  Faroe  and  Shetland  Isles,  800  or  1,000  miles  north  of  the 
parallel  of  Minneapolis,  are  said  never  to  freeze. 

In  the  waters  of  the  Torrid  Zone  is  stored  the  heat  which  the  Gulf  Stream 
bears  across  the  ocean  to  tcarm  the  winds  which  blow  over  Western  Europe  and 
make  homes  of  comfort  and  plenty  for  millions  of  men  iu  latitudes  where  King 
Frost  else  would  make  his  reign. 

On  the  eastern  coast  of  North  Am'irica,  in  the  same  latitude  as  the  British 
Isles,  the  ground  is  frozen  nine  months  in  the  year,  and  the  few  dwarfed  inhab- 
itants get  their  living  by  catching  seal  and  fish  that  find  a  home  in  the  icy 
Greenland  current. 

The  Japan  current  is  a  branch  of  the  equatorial  current  of 
the  Pacific.  It  is  a  noble  stream  of  warm  blue  water,  flowing 
rapidly  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Japan,  and  thence  across 
the  ocean  to  Alaska,  where  it  bends  to  the  south  and  at  last  is 
again  merged  into  the  equatorial  current.  Its  genial  influence 
is  felt  in  Japan,  but  so  much  of  its  heat  is  lost  in  cros.sing  the 
Pacific  that  it  has  little  direct  influence  on  the  climate  of  the 
western  coast  of  North  America. 


THE   ATMOSPHERE. 


Depth  of  the  Air. — Air  is  present  wherever  we  go.  It 
extends  far  above  the  highest  clouds,  the  loftiest  mountain 
peaks.  The  main  body  of  the  air  is  from  40  to  50  miles  in 
depth,  or  about  twelve  times  the  average  depth  of  the  sea. 
In  a  very  thin  or  rare  state  it  probably  extends  hundreds  of 
miles  above  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

Weight  of  the  Air. —  At  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  weight 
or  pressure  of  the  air,  or  atmosphere,  is  fifteen  pounds  upon 
every  square  inch.  We  do  not  feel  this  pressure  upon  our 
bodies,  because,  in  accordance  with  a  simple  law  of  nature, 
air,  like  water,  presses  equally  in  all  directions.  The  pressure 
of  the  air  and  its  density  diminish  with  the  (elevation.  Far 
above  the  earth  it  is  too  thin  to  sustain  life. 

Persons  ascending  to  great  heights  experience  strange  difficulties. 

Two  a;ronauts,  Glaisher  and  Coxwell,  rose  in  a  balloon  six  and  a  half  miles, 
or  a  mile  higher  than  Mount  Everest.  "The  air  becoming  too  thin,  or  rare,  for 
their  lungs,  hardly  allowed  them  to  pant;  they  had  palpitation  of  the  heart, 
singing  in  tlie  ears;  the  blood  swelled  the  arteries  of  their  temples;  their 
fingers  froze  and  refused  to  move,  and  at  last  Glashier  fainted  away."  Simi- 
lar effects  have  been  experienced  by  some  who  have  attempted  to  scale  the 
highest  peaks  of  the  Himalayas  and  the  Andes. 

Air  in  Motion. — The  great  ocean  of  air  is  never  at  rest. 
Like  the  ocean  of  water,  it  has  its  waves  and  currents.  Air 
in  motion  is  called  mnd. 

Cause  of  Wind. — Wind  is  caused  by  the  unequal  distri- 
bution of  heat.  If  all  portions  of  the  air  were  equally  warm 
it  would  remain  at  rest,  or  in  a  state  of  equilibrium. 

This  is  illustrated  by  a  heated  stove.  Place  the  hand  above 
the  stove  and  we  feel  the  warm  air  rising.    A  paper  wind-wheel 


attached  to  the  stovepipe  is  whirled  rapidly  by  the  ascending 
current.  Through  the  crack  below  the  door  the  cool  air  is 
rushing  into  the  room.  We  hear  the  stove  drawing,  and  the 
hot  air  is  moving  up  the  chimney.  Now,  all  these  movements 
of  the  air,  these  little  winds  in  the  room,  are  caused  by  the  fire 
in  the  stove. 

Let  us  try  to  understand  this:  Heat  expands  air, — makes  it 
thinner,  or  rarer,  and  lighter. 

At  the  point  of  greatest  warmth  near  the  stove,  the  air 
expands,  becomes  lighter,  and  is  forced  upward  by  the  colder 
and  heavier  air  that  is  pressing  from  the  outer  and  less  heated 
portions  of  the  room.  The  warm,  light  air,  ascending  above 
the  stove  is  replaced  by  steady,  horizontal  currents  of  cooler 
air  rushing  in  from  without,  moving,  as  horizontal  currents 
always  move,  toward  the  point  of  greatest  heat. 

Land  and  Sea  Breezes. — Let  us  take  an  example  from 
nature.  The  rays  of  the  morning  sun  fall  upon  an  island  and 
upon  the  surrounding  sea.  The  land  is  heated  more  readily 
than  the  water,  and  it  gives  off  its  heat  to  the  air  much  more 
rapidly.  The  temperature  of  the  air  above  the  land  is  soon 
raised  higher  than  that  of  the  air  over  the  water,  and  the 
equilibrium  is  thus  destroyed.  The  cooler  and  heavier  air  of 
the  sea  rushes  in  from  all  directions,  making  a  fresh  sea  breeze, 
while  the  warmer  air  is  forced  upward  from  the  island,  form- 
ing an  ascending  current. 

When  night  falls,  the  land  has  radiated  most  of  its  heat, 
but  the  water  retains  much  which  it  continues  to  give  off,  and, 


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38 


THE  ATMOSPHERE— TRADE  WIXDS— MONSOONS. 


in  a  little  time,  the  air  above  the  water  becomes  warmer  than 
that  above  the  land,  and  a  land  breeze  sets  in.  Land  and  sea 
breezes  are  observed  almost  daily  on  nearly  all  sea-coasts  border- 
ing the  mainlands  as  well  as  the  islands. 

Constant  or  Trade  ^Vinds. — As  the  equatorial  regions  are 
always  very  warm,  and  the  heat  gradually  diminishes  as  we 
approach  the  poles,  the  atmosphere  of  the  Torrid  Zone  is  con- 
stantly rarer  and  lighter  than  that  of  the  temperate  and  polar 
regions.  The  heavier  air  from  the  colder  regions,  north  and 
south,  presses  on  the  two  sides  of  the  lighter  air  of  the  tropics, 
causing  it  to  rise.  As  the  tropical  atmosphere  rises,  that  from 
the  poles  flows  in  and  two  lower  currents  are  established,  one 
flowing  north,  the  other  south.  The  air  which  is  constantly 
ascending  near  the  Equator  moves  in  two  upper  currents  back 
to  the  poles,  there  to  begin  again  the  same  round. 

"Were  the  earth  stationary,  we  might  expect  to  find,  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere,  a  cold  wind  blowing  to  the  south;  and 
in  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  a  cold,  steady  wind  moving  to 
the  north.  But  the  rotation  of  the  earth  changes  the  direc- 
tion of  these  currents. 

The  rate  of  rotation  near  the  poles  is  very  slow  compared 
with  that  at  the  Equator,  where  it  is  1,000  miles  an  hour. 
Hence,  the  air  at  the  poles,  when  starting  on  its  journey,  has 
.less  rotary  speed  than  the  regions  toward  which  it  is  going, 
and,  instead  of  following  the  meridians  on  which  it  starts, 
directly  to  the  Equator,  it  falls  more  and  more  behind  them, 
or  bends  to  the  westward,  itntil  it  becomes  a  northeast  wind 
in  the  Northern,  and  a  southeast  wind  in  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere. Reaching  the  tropical  regions  these  winds  bloW  nearly 
from  the  east,  and  are  called  Trade  Winds. 

Near  the  Equator,  where  the  heat  is  intense,  the  air  ascends 
rapidly,  forming  a  broad  Zone  of  Calms.  "When  the  ascending 
equatorial  currents,  far  above  the  earth,  begin  their  return  to 
the  poles,  they  have  a  greater  rotary  speed  than  the  regions  to 
which  they  go,  and,  always  getting  more  and  more  ahead  of  the 
meridians  on  which  they  start,  they  become,  when  they  reach 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  the  southwest  winds  of  the  Northern, 
and  northwest  winds  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  These  are 
sometimes  called  the  Return  Trades. 

The  Trade  Winds  are  gentle  and  constant.  They  wafted  Columbus 
across  the  Atlantic  and  Magellan  across  the  Pacific.  In  their  path  the  sky  is 
cloudless,  the  temperature  moderate,  and  there  are  no  tempests.  The  Span- 
ish sailors  formerly  called  the  tropical  part  of  the  Atlantic  the  "Ladies'  Sea," 
because  there  one  could,  without  danger,  confide  the  helm  of  a  ship  to  a  young 
girl. 

The  Equatorial  Zone  of  Calms  is  the  region  of  ascend- 
ing currents.  The  calms  of  Cancer  and  the  calms  of  Capri- 
corn lie  between  the  zone  of  constant  and  the  zone  of  variable 
winds,  where  the  polar  currents  meet  the  upper  descending 
currents  from  the  equatorial  regions.  The  equatorial  zone  of 
calms  is  widest  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  three  great  oceans. 
Its  average  width  is  four  to  six  degrees. 

The  atmosphere  in  the  zone  of  calms  is  not  without  motion.  It  is  the 
region  of  hot  ascending  currents,  and  the  mixture  of  these  with  cold  currents 
in  the  upper  air  often  causes  descending,  variable  winds,  sudden  squalls,  fearful 
tornadoes,  or  "doldrums,"  which  are  the  terror  of  navigators. 

In  the  equatorial  zone  of  calms  clouds  gather  almost  daily,  pouring  down 
their  deluge  of  rain  accompanied  by  terrific  thunder  and  the  most  vivid  light- 
ning. The  calms  of  Cancer  and  the  calms  of  Capricorn  are  characterized  by 
light,  shifting  winds  and  absence  of  rain.  American  sailors  call  this  belt  of 
calms  the  "Horse  Latitudes." 

The  tropical  winds  and  calm  belts  swing  bodily  from  north 


to  south,  and  south  to  north,  following  the  movement  of  the 
sun  in  the  heavens.  Thus,  the  belt  of  equatorial  calms,  with 
its  daily  rains,  moves  with  the  sun  into  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere during  our  summer,  and  back  into  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere during  our  winter,  giving  a  wet  and  a  dry  season  in 
the  Torrid  Zone. 

Variable  Winds. —  The  Torrid  Zone  is  the  zone  of  constant 
winds,  but  the  Temperate  Zones  are  zones  of  variable  winds. 
The  southwest  and  the  northeast  are,  however,  the  more  com- 
mon in  the  Northern,  and  the  southeast  and  northwest  in  the 
Southern  Hemisphere.  The  one,  coming  from  the  poles,  brings 
cool  weather  and  clear  skies;  the  other,  from  the  tropics, 
brings  warm  weather,  clouds,  and  rain.  But  there  are  many 
things  in  the  middle  latitudes  to  change  the  direction  of  these 
two  normal  winds,  such  as  mountain  ranges,  forests,  great  lakes 
or  seas,  tracts  of  sand,  etc. 

Monsoons. —  During  summer  in  the  southern  half  of  Africa 

the  atmosphere   of  that   region  is   intensely  heated,  and  the 

cooler  air  from  Asia,  where  it  is  then  winter,  sweeps  across 

the  Indian  Ocean,  toward  the  point  of  greatest  heat,  giving  rise 

to  the  northeast  monsoon.     "When  it  is  summer  in  Central  and 

Southern  Asia  that  becomes  the  point  of  greatest  heat,  and  the 

wind  blows  from  the  direction  of  Africa  where  it  is  cooler,  and 

the  southwest  monsoon  then  prevails. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  direction  of  these  winds  depends  ni)on  the  seasons, 
rather  than  upon  the  alternation  of  day  and  night,  as  in  the  case  of  land  and 
sea  breezes.  The  monsoons  blow  alternately  six  months  from  the  northea.st 
and  six  months  from  the  southwest.  The  time  of  the  change  from  one  monsoon 
to  another  is  marked  by  high  winds  and  terrible  tempests.  Similar,  but  less 
important,  monsoons  blow  between  Australia  and  Asia,  aLso  on  the  western 
coast  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  and  on  the  coast  of  Brazil. 

Hot  and  Dry  Winds. — The  differences  between  the  temper- 
ature of  the  immense  sandy  deserts  of  Northern  Africa  and 
Arabia,  and  of  the  Mediterranean,  Southern  Europe,  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea,  and  the  Atlantic  give  rise  to  hot  and  dry  winds  of 
various  names  that  sweep  across  the  desert  and  into  border- 
ing lands,  carrying  clouds  of  sand,  and  with  their  hot  breath 
scorching  the  vegetation  in  their  path,  and  often  destroying 
human  life. 

To  these  winds  the  Arabs  give  the  general  name  "Simoom,^ ^ 
from  the  word  samma,  meaning  hot  or  poisonous.  The  Egyp- 
tians call  the  hot  wind  "Kliamsin,'^  meaning  fifty,  since  it  gen- 
erally blows  from  the  end  of  April  for  that  number  of  days, 
to  the  inundation  of  the  Nile,  in  June. 

The  Sirocco  is  most  frequent  in  July,  but  may  occur  at  any  season.  It  is 
characterized  by  scorching  heat,  which,  in  Southern  Italy,  Malta,  and  Sicily 
sometimes  reaches  95°  Fahr.,  even  at  midnight.  Under  its  breath  the  ground 
cracks,  vegetation  dries  up,  and,  if  long  continued,  the  leaves  of  trees  roll  up 
and  fall  off.  Every  chink  in  dwellings  is  filled  with  fine  dust;  and  if  the  wind 
comes  when  the  vine  and  olive  are  in  bloom  the  whole  harvest  may  fail. 

The  Fohu  resembles  the  Sirocco  in  being  a  warm,  violent  south  wind.  It 
prevails  in  the  valleys  opening  to  the  north,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Alps.  It 
blows  chiefly  during  the  winter  and  spring,  and  is  "tlie  great  snow  melter," 
clearing  the  valleys  and  mountain  sides  with  great  rapidity.  The  town  of 
Altorf,  in  the  Reus  Valley,  has  been  destroyed  by  fire  on  several  occasions  on 
account  of  the  fury  of  this  wind,  and  the  law  now  requixes  householders  to 
extinguish  all  fires  in  the  town  on  its  approach. 

The  Harmattan  is  intensely  dry,  and  charged  with  fine  dust  and  sand. 
It  blows  outward  from  the  desert  at  intervals  during  Deceinber,  January,  and 
February.  "Steamers  running  along  the  coast  north  of  Sierra  Leone  at  this 
season,  with  freshly  tarred  rigging,  or  newly  painted  bulwarks,  find  the  side 
next  to  Africa  powdered  with  fine  sand,  so  that  the  painted  parts  assume  the 
nature  of  sand-paper. " 

A  French  traveler  gives  the  following  description  of  a  storm  in  the  Sahara: 
"As  I  was  traveling,  on  a  fine  July  night,  through  the  desert  of  Bisharin,  I  was 
astonished  at  the  extraordinary  clearness  of  the  unclouded  starry  sky.  The 
atmosphere  was  perfectly  calm;  suddenly  it  took  a  different  aspect;  in  the  east 
a  black  cloud  began  to  rise  with  frightful  rapidity,  and  soon  covered  half  the 


THE  ATMOSPHERE— STORMS,   HURRICANES,   CYCLONES. 


39 


heavens.  Immediately  afterwards  a  strong  puff  of  wind  covered  us  with  sand, 
and  threw  up  little  stones,  of  the  size  of  peas,  in  our  faces.  Soon  we  were  sur- 
rounded by  a  dense  sand-cloud  and  stood  still  in  the  deepest  darkness. 

"We  had  quickly  covered  up  our  eyes;  but,  in  spite  of  that,  they  filled 
with  sand  every  time  we  opened  them.  The  camels  sank  down  on  their  knees 
and  groaned,  and  then  lay  down,  and  my  servants,  battered  by  the  sand  and 
gravel,  did  the  same.  I  leant  myself  against  my  camel,  whose  high  saddle 
afforded  some  protection,  but  did  not  dare  to  lie  down  for  fear  of  being  buried  in 
the  sand.  The  storm  passed,  and  by  daybreak  the  sky  was  again  clear  and  the 
air  at  rest;  butthe  camels  and  their  drivere  lay  up  to  their  necks  in  sand." 

The  Mistral,  from  a  Spanish  word  masterful,  and  the  Bora  are  icy  cold 
northwest  winds  in  Soutliern  Europe  near  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean. 
They  come  when  tlie  sky  is  cloudless,  and  are  sometimes  so  violent  that  trees 
are  stripped  of  their  foliage.  The  chief  cause  of  these  winds  is  the  constant 
difference  in  the  terapeniture  between  the  heated  plains  of  the  coast  and  the 
snowy  heights  of  the  mountains  to  the  north. 

Storms,  Hurricanes,  Cyclones. —  Where  currents  of  air 
moving  in  diiferent  directions  meet,  they  often  cause  a  whirl- 
ing motion  of  the  atmosphere,  such  as  everyone  has  seen  when 
the  little  "whirlwind"  carries  up  clouds  of  dust  gathered  in 
its  course.  Such  a  movement  on  a  large  scale  goes  by  the  name 
of  storm,  hurricane,  or  cyclone,  according  to  its  nature,  strength, 
and  velocity. 

The  meeting  of  slow-moving  currents  of  different  tempera- 
ture may  give  rise  to  an  imperceptible  rotary  motion  accom- 
panied by  rain  or  snow.  Great  differences  of  temperature, 
producing  strong  ascending,  or  rushing,  opposing  horizontal  cur- 
rents, may  cause  terrific  tornadoes  sweeping  narrow  belts  and 
drawing  trees  and  dwellings  into  the  vortex  above.  Such  tor- 
nadoes are  also  the  water-spouts  of  the  sea  and  the  whirling 
sand-storms  of  the  desert. 

The  hurricanes  and  cyclones  which  have  their  birth  in  the 
Torrid  Zone,  but  often  sweep  far  into  the  Temperate,  have  a 
similar  origin,  but  they  are  gotten  up  on  a  much  grander 
scale,  sweeping  vast  regions  in  their  course.  In  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  the  rotary  motion  of  these  winds  is  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  hands  of  a  clock,  but  in  the  Southern  it  is  the  re- 
verse. 

Influence  of  Winds  on  Climate. —  In  the  Northern  Hem- 
isphere, the  warming  winds  from  the  equatorial  regions  are 
from  the  southwest,  and  moderate  the  climate  of  the  western 
coasts  of  Europe  and  North  America,  which  are  the  warm 
coasts  of  these  continents.  Winds  from  the  polar  regions  are 
from  the  northwest  and  cool  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia  and 
North  America,  making  them  the  cold  coasts.  In  the  Southern 
Hemisphere,  the  world  of  waters,  the  winds  have  less  influ- 
ence than  the  ocean  currents. 

Moisture  of  the  Air. — Air  has  the  property  of  holding 
moisture,  more  or  less  of  which  is  always  present  in  it,  even  in 
the  dryest  time.  The  moist  earth,  the  pools,  lakes,  rivers,  and- 
the  sea  are  constantly  giving  off  minute  particles  of  "water- 
dust"  to  the  atmosphere,  and  the  winds  are  bearing  this  mois- 
ture away. 

When  water  dries  up,  or  passes  off  in  vapor,  we  say  that  it 
evaporates;  and  the  process  of  turning  into  vapor  is  called  evap- 
oration. 

Evaporation  is  hastened  by  heat.     The  heat  of  the  fire  evap- 
orates the  water  in  the  kettle;  the  heat  of  the  sun  causes  water 
to  evaporate  wherever  it  is  found  on  the  surface  of  the  earth 
Evaporation  goes  on  most  rapidly  in  the  Torrid  Zone. 

Air  is  said  to  have  a  certain  capacity  for  moisture,  and  its 
capacity  is  increased  by  heat.  A  cubic  foot  of  air,  at  a  given 
temperature,  takes  up  a  definite  amount  of  vapor.    Evaporation 


then  ceases,  and  the  air  is  saturated,  or  contains  all  the  moisture  it 
will  hold;  but,  increase  its  temperature,  and  evaporation  begins 
again.  A  cubic  foot  of  air  at  50°  will  hold  about  4  grains  of 
vapor;  at  100°,  nearly  20  grains,  or  about  five  times  as  much. 
From  this  it  follows,  that  cold  decreases  the  capacity  of  the  air 
for  moisture. 

In  the  winter,  when  the  heated  and  moist  air  of  the  school-room  comes  in 
contact  with  the  gla.ss  windows,  which  are  cooled  by  the  outside  air,  little  drops 
of  water  are  seen  all  over  the  panes.  We  say  the  moisture  of  the  air  is  con- 
densed. In  summer,  we  see  drops  on  the  outside  of  the  pitcher  containing 
cold  water.  The  moisture  comes  from  the  air  of  the  room;  the  vapor  ia  made 
visible  by  condensation. 

When  perfectly  saturated  air  is  cooled  in  the  least  degree, 
some  of  its  moisture  is  condensed  into  dew,  clouds,  or  rain.  At 
70°  air  will  hold  8  grains  of  moisture  per  cubic  foot.  But  sup- 
pose it  to  have  but  4  grains,  then  the  temperature  will  have  to 
be  lowered  to  a  trifle  below  50°  before  condensation  begins,  be- 
cause 4  grains  is  the  saturation  point  of  air  at  50°. 

Prom  this  we  learn  that  the  change  in  temperature  required 
to  bring  about  condensation  depends  on  the  dryness  of  the  air. 
If  the  condensation  is  slight,  it  will  form  dew,  or  clouds,  which 
are  but  vapor  floating  in  the  air.  Greater  condensation  forms 
larger  drops,  or  rain. 


KVAPOKATION 


In  the  engraving,  the  water  is  represented  as  rising  in  the  form  of  vapor 
which  is  condensed  in  the  cooler  air  at  some  distance  above  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  forming  clouds.  The  clouds  are  borne  away  over  the  land  by  the  winds, 
where  their  moisture  is  still  more  condensed  and  falls  in  rain.  A  brook,  seen 
in  the  foreground,  returns  the  water,  or  a  portion  of  it,  to  the  lake  where  its 
journey  began.  The  artist  has  made  the  ascending  vapor  visible,  but  we  should 
remember  that  it  is  geuerally  invisible. 

Warm  winds  from  the  tropics,  moving  toward  the  poles,  or 
colder  regions,  are  cooled,  bringing  clouds  and  rain.  Cold 
winds,  blowing  toward  warmer  regions,  become  warmer,  have 
their  capacity  for  moisture  increased,  and  give  fitir  skies.  Winds 
may  be  cooled,  and  their  capacity  for  moisture  decreased,  by 
coming  in  contact  with  colder  currents;  by  being  raised  high 
above  the  level  of  the  sea;  by  contact  with  icy  mountain  peaks 
or  ranges;  and  by  moving  over  large  bodies  of  water.  They 
may  be  warmed,  and  their  capacity  for  moisture  increased,  by 
passing  over  vast  heated  deserts,  or  other  tracts  of  heated  land. 

Dew  is  moisture  condensed  from  the  atmosphere  by  blades 
of  grass,  leaves,  and  other  objects  near  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
that  always  cool  more  rapidly  than  the  air;  and,  becoming 
cooler,  condense  its  vapor  upon  their  surfaces  in  the  same 
manner  that  vapor  is  formed  on  the  window-pane.     When  the 


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THE  ATMOSPHERE— MISTS— CLOUDS. 


41 


temperature  of  the  air  sinks  as  low  as  32°,  the  freezing  point, 
the  dew  is  frozen,  and  hoar-frost  is  seen  in  the  morning. 

Mists,  or  fogs,  are  masses  of  vapor  that  hover  near  the 
earth.  When  the  atmosphere  over  a  pond,  or  stream,  is  some- 
what cooler  than  the  water  below,  the  cool  air  condenses  the 
vapor  in  the  warm  air  resting  on  the  surface  of  the  water, 
rendering  it  visible,  and  fog  is  formed. 

No  other  part  of  the  world  is  so  foggy  as  the  Grand  Batiks  of  Newfound- 
land. The  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream  send  up  vast  quantities  of  vapor, 
which  is  rapidly  condensed  by  the  chilly  atmosphere  ahove  the  great  Greenland 
current,  always  cold,  but  which  at  certain  seasons  floats  vast  masses  of  ice. 
Ships  in  this  dangerous  part  of  the  ocean  must  frequently  sound  their  steam 
fog-horns,  to  prevent  collision  with  other  vessels. 

Clouds  are  but  masses  of  visible  vapor  floating  in  the  at- 
mosphere, generally  at  a  considerable  elevation.  A  traveler  on 
a  mountain  sees  fogs  in  the  valley,  which  are  clouds  to  those 
who  dwell  below. 

Rains  within  the  Tropics. — Within  the  Torrid  Zone  evapo- 
ration goes  on  most  rapidly,  and  there  is  always  a  very  large 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  air.  The  clouds  fly  much  higher 
than  in  cooler  regions  and  the  falling  rain-drops  are  much 
larger.  When  the  trade  winds  blow  with  regularity  the  skies 
are  of  a  deep  azure,  and  there  is  not  a  cloud  to  be  seen. 

As  the  sun  approaches  the  zenith  at  any  point  on  its 
journey  from  tropic  to  tropic,  clouds  begin  to  appear,  first  in 
the  horizon,  then  more  and  more  overhead.  Right  under  the 
path  of  the  burning  sun  the  air  is  most  intensely  heated,  and 
rises  in  strong  currents,  carrying  vast  quantities  of  moistui'e 
with  it,  high  above  the  earth,  where  it  is  condensed  by  the 
cold  and  falls  in  heavy  showers  during  the  hottest  part  of 
every  day.  These  showers  are  always  accompanied  by  terrific 
thunder  and  lightning.  This  belt  of  showers  keeps  advancing 
northward  with  the  sun,  until  it  reaches  the  Tropic  of  Cancer. 
It  then  swings  southward,  following  the  sun  toward  the  Tropic 
of  Capricorn. 

During  this  period  of  rain  the  people  are  in  a  constant  vapor- bath;  the  air 
is  stifling,  and  the  body  is  weak;  vegetation  puts  on  new  life,  the  wastes  of  the 
dry  season  are  clothed  with  green,  and  one  can  almost  see  tlie  plants  grow. 
When  the  rainy  season  is  gone,  with  the  retreating  sun,  the  trade  winds  resume 
their  regularity,  the  skies  become  clear  and  no  more  raiu  falls  until  another 
season,  when  the  sun  returns. 

In  the  equatorial  zone  of  calms,  which  separates  the  northern  and  southern 
zones  of  periodical  rains,  the  clouds  gather  and  rain  falls  in  torrents  almost 
every  day  in  the  year.  The  early  part  of  the  day  is  beautifully  clear,  but  from 
1  to  2  o'clock  the  clouds  suddenly  gather  and  pour  their  torrents  on  the  earth. 

It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  three  rain  belts  in  the  Torrid 
Zone:  the  belt  of  periodical  rains  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere, 
the  belt  of  constant  rains  near  the  Equator,  and  the  belt  of 
periodical  rains  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 

The  amount  of  rain  that  falls  in  the  Torrid  Zone  during  the 
wet  season  is  far  greater  than  that  which  falls  in  the  Temperate 
Zones.  The  yearly  average  in  the  tropical  parts  of  the  New 
World  is  estimated  at  115  inches;  in  the  Old  World,  77  inches. 
But  there  are  localities  where  it  is  much  greater.  In  Para- 
maribo it  has  sometimes  reached  142  inches,  and  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Amazon  276  inches.  At  the  foot  of  the  mountains  in 
Northern  India  it  has  fallen  to  the  depth  of  51  feet.  In  view 
of  the  copious  rainfall  we  cannot  wonder  that  the  mightiest 
rivers  are  found  in  the  Torrid  Zone.  The  Amazon,  the  Orinoco, 
the  La  Plata,  the  Nile,  and  the  Congo  are  examples. 

Rains  of  the  Temperate  Zones. —  The  rains  of  the  Tem- 
perate Zones  are  produced  by  the  meeting  and  mingling  of 


horizontal  currents  of  different  temperatures;  while  those  of 
the  Torrid  Zone  are  caused  by  ascending  currents. 


AVERAGE  ANNUAL  FALL  OF  RAIN. 


Latitude. 

iDches. 

Latitude. 

Inches. 

0° 

100 

50° 

30 

20° 

80 

60° 

20 

30° 

60 

70° 

10 

40° 

40 

80° 

5 

The  great  deserts  of  the  world  are  in  the  sub-tropical  belts  just  beyond  the 
influence  of  the  trade  winds,  and  not  fairly  in  the  region  of  the  return  trades. 
This  is  true  in  the  Southern  as  well  as  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  as  may  be 
seen  by  reference  to  the  chart. 

Aside  from  these  general  laws  relating  to  rainfall  in  the 
several  zones,  there  are  other  influences  at  work  in  different 
regions  of  the  earth  which  serve  to  increase  or  to  diminish  the 
deposit  of  moisture. 

Influence  of  the  Andes.* — The  Andes  lie  directly  across 
the  path  of  the  trade  winds  which  follow  their  eastern  slopes 
upward  from  the  warm  plains  to  cooler  and  cooler  regions,  until 
the  snowy  peaks  are  reached.  On  their  course  the  moisture  of 
the  winds  is  condensed  and  falls  in  vast  quantities,  giving  rise 
to  the  great  streams  which  unite  to  form  the  Amazon. 

On  the  western  side  of  the  Andes  is  a  long,  rainless  belt,  made 
so  by  the  mountains  on  the  east,  which  have  left  little  moisture 
in  the  air.  Further  south,  in  the  region  of  the  return  trades, 
the  winds  blow  from  the  Pacific,  and  the  moisture  falls  on  the 
western  slopes  of  the  Andes,  while  the  plains  to  the  east  are  dry 
and  parched. 

Rains  of  the  Pacific  Slope. — Southern  California  receives 
its  rains  in  the  autumn  and  winter.  During  the  summer  the 
sandy  plateaus  of  the  southwestern  part  of  the  continent  heat 
the  air  which  passes  over  them,  increasing  its  capacity  for 
moisture,  and  causing  the  hot,  dry  summers  of  that  part  of  the 
coast.  It  is  only  when  the  sun  is  far  to  the  south,  and  the 
cold  of  the  northern  winter  bears  toward  the  tropics,  that  the 
moisture  of  the  air  is  condensed,  and  rain  falls. 

Further  north,  in  Oregon,  Washington,  and  Alaska,  the 
bending  mountains,  like  a  great  arm,  gather  in  the  moisture 
from  the  return  trades,  or  southwest  winds,  and  there  is  an 
abundance  of  rain  at  all  seasons  on  the  western  slopes. 

The  southwest  winds  that  bring  the  welcome  rain  to  the 
Pacific  coast  lose  their  moisture  on  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  other  mountain  ranges,  and,  for  that  reason, 
little  rain  falls  in  the  vast  highland  region  to  the  east,  the  arid 
portion  of  the  continent. 

Western  Europe  receives  a  liberal  supply  of  rain  from 
the  westerly  winds,  made  moist  by  the  warm  Gulf  Stream. 

Rainless  Regions  of  the  Old  World. — The  Great  Deserts 
of  Northern  Africa  and  Western  Asia,  wastes  of  sand  and  rock 
crossed  by  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  are  regions  over  which  the 
air  is  very  warm.  Cooler  winds  blowing  from  any  direction 
become  heated,  increasing  their  capacity  for  moisture,  their 
clouds  are  dissipated,  and  no  rain  falls. 

The  immense  deserts  and  plateaus  of  Central  Asia,  hundreds 
of  miles  in  breadth,  forming  the  very  heart  of  the  continent,  are 
surrounded  by  mountain  chains.      If  the  winds  are  from  the 

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CLIMATIC  20KES— LIFE  OK  THE  CLOBE. 


south,  their  moisture  is  condensed  and  falls  on  the  southern 

slopes  of  the  Himalayas;    if  from  the  north,  it  falls  on  the 

northern  slopes  of  the  Altai;  if  from  the  east  or  west,  mountains 

cut  off  the  supply  of  moisture,  so  that  this  whole  region  has 

little  rainfall. 

The  Nile,  flowing  for  hundreds  of  miles  through  a  rainless  country,  has  its 
annual  overflow,  bringing  plenty  to  millions  of  people.  Its  sources  are  in  the 
Torrid  Zone,  and  in  the  course  of  the  northeast  monsoons  which  sweep  across 
the  Indian  Ocean,  depositing  their  moisture  on  the  rugged  western  coasts  of 
AXriea.     As  these  rains  occur  during  the  northern  winter,  the  floods  begin  to 


reach  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  the  river  to  rise  in  the  early  summer.  When  the 
southwest  monsoons  prevail,  the  western  and  southwestern  coasts  of  Southern 
Asia  are  deluged  with  rain. 

Snow. —  In  the  Temperate  and  Frigid  Zones,  and  in  elevated  regions  iu 
warm  latitudes,  much  of  the  moisture  of  the  air  falls  in  the  form  of  snow, 
which  is  but  condensed  and  frozen  vapor  that  takes  a  great  variety  of  forms. 

As  the  heat  of  the  air  increases  downwards,  the  temperature  of  the  lower 
atmosphere  may  be  sufficient  to  melt  the  frozen  drops  before  they  reach  the 
earth,  so  that  snow  and  rain  often  come  from  the  same  cloud,  the  snow  falling 
on  the  mountains  and  rain  in  the  valleys. 

Hail,  or  frozen  rain,  is  supposed  to  be  formed  at  a  great  height  in  the 
atmosphere.  Many  frozen  drojjs  are  sometimes  clustered  together,  or  collected 
in  layers,  forming  large  stones. 


CLIMATIC  ZONES. 


In  the  five  zones  already  considered,  the  climate  is  deter- 
mined by  distance  from  the  Equator.  The  influence  of  the 
sun's  rays  is  alone  regarded,  no  account  being  made  of  the 
modifying  effects  of  elevation,  ocean  currents,  prevailing  winds, 
or  other  agencies.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  we  cannot,  in 
every  case,  determine  the  climate  of  a  country  by  the  zone 
in  which  it  lies. 

Two  places  on  the  same  parallel  may  diffier  widely  in  temperature.  Naples, 
in  Italy,  with  its  orange  groves,  is  on  the  same  parallel  as  New  York  with  its 
ice  ponds;  and  England,  with  its  fertile  fields,  has  the  same  latitude  as  Labra- 
dor—  a  treeless  waste. 

The  true  climatic  zones  are  not  bounded  by  the  tropics  or 
polar  circles,  but  are  irregular  in  shape,  varying  in  breadth 
according  to  all  the  agencies  operating  to  produce  the  climate 
of  the  different  regions.  For  instance,  the  North  Temperate 
Zone  reaches  its  greatest  breadth  where  the  Gulf  Stream  and 


the  sonthwest  winds  carry  their  heat  far  north  of  the  Arctic 
Circle;  and  it  is  narrowest  where  it  crosses  the  high  plateaus 
and  the  great  northern  slope  of  Asia. 

Isothermal  Lines.^ — The  isothermal  lines,  seen  on  the 
chart,  were  first  used  by  Humboldt  to  show  the  actual  distri- 
bution of  heat  as  measured  by  the  thermometer.  They  con- 
nect all  places  having  the  same  average  temperature  for  the  year. 

To  study  the  chart  aright,  observe  that  a  heating  influence  is 
denoted  when  the  lines  bend  away  from  the  Equator  towards 
either  pole ;  and  a  cooling  influence,  when  they  bend  from  the 
poles  toward  the  Equator. 

As  we  have  learned  something  of  the  modifying  influence 
of  elevation,  slope,  mountains,  ocean  currents,  winds,  etc.,  we 
are  prepared  to  interpret  the  chart;  to  study  the  climate  of  the 
several  continents,  and  of  different  regions. 


study  the  Chart  of  Isotherms  at  this  point. 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS. 

The  mantle  of  plants  with  which  the  earth  is  clothed  consti- 
tutes its  chief  beauty.  Without  the  trees,  the  grass,  the  flowers, 
it  would  be  but  a  barren,  cheerless  desert.  Men  have  not  yet 
had  time  to  count  the  prodigious  number  of  plants  that  surround 
us,  from  the  giant  redwood,  or  the  oak  with  spreading  boughs, 
to  the  humble  lichen  clinging  to  the  rock. 

It  is  thought  that  the  different  vegetable  species  number 
from  400,000  to  500,000,  of  which  hardly  a  quarter  have  been 
placed  on  the  lists  of  botanists.  Even  in  the  best  known  countries 
of  Europe,  where  men  have  been  exploring  since  the  days  of 
the  great  Linnaeus,  who  lived  a  century  ago,  new  species  are 
brought  to  light  every  year.  There  are  yet  vast  regions  of 
the  earth  of  whose  plant  life,  or  flora,  very  little  is  known,  but 
enough  to  show  that, 

"  Full  many  a  flower  is  bom  to  blush  un.seen, 
And  wa.ste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air." 

Nature  has  distributed  her  plants  over  the  land,  from  the  line 
of  perpetual  frost  in  the  Torrid  Zone,  far  into  the  polar  regions; 
and  even  the  streams,  the  ponds,  the  great  lakes,  and  the  vast 
oceans  are  by  no  means  barren  wastes. 

Plants  depend  on  sunlight,  warmth,  and  moisture  for  their 
support;  and  we  find  different  zonies  or  belts  of  vegetation  cor- 


responding with  the  climatic  zones  just  traced  on  the  chart.  We 
cannot  indicate  by  isothermal  lines  the  precise  limit  of  each 
species  of  plant.  This  can  be  done  only  in  the  most  general 
manner,  and  were  we  to  make  a  journey  from  the  extreme 
northern  or  the  southern  limit  of  vegetation  to  the  Equator, 
we  should  not  be  able  to  tell  just  where  one  zone  was  left 
behind  and  another  entered,  because  the  change  is  so  very 
gradual. 

Vegetation  of  Different  Zones. — Far  beyond  the  Arctic 
Circle,  in  what  may  be  called  the  North  Polar  Zone,  plant  life 
is  almost  extinguished  by  the  perpetual  cold.  In  narrow  val- 
leys, sloping  to  the  low  summer  sun,  or  by  the  base  of  shel- 
tering rocks,  spring  a  few  humble  plants  that  adorn  the  bare 
spots  or  oases  which  the  sun  has  made  in  the  endless  wastes 
of  ice  and  snow. 

In  the  Arctic  Zone,  albng  the  northern  borders  of  the  con- 
tinents, are  frozen  marshes,  or  tundras,  covered  with  moss,  the 
chief  food  of  the  reindeer.  A  few  herbs,  shrubs  with  edible 
berries,  flowering  plants,  and  patches  of  grass  spring  up  in 
favored  places.  The  willow,  the  birch,  and  some  of  the  ever- 
greens appear  here  and  there,  but  they  do  not  grow  to  be 
trees  until  the  limit  indicated  by  the  dotted  line  on  the  chart 
is  reached;  and,  even  then,  they  do  not  tower  at  once  into  the 
lofty  forests  seen  further  to  the  south. 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— DISTEIBUTION  OF  PLANTS. 


Oats,  barley,  rye,  potatoes,  turnips,  and  hardy  grasses  may  be  cultivated  with 
success.    Wheat  of  fine  quality  is  also  grown  in  some  portions  of  this  zone. 

In  the  Temperate  Zone  are  noble  forests  of  oaks,  numbering  many  species, 
maples,  elms,  beeches,  chestnuts,  walnuts,  poplars,  locusts,  basswoods,  ashes,  and 
other  deciduous  trees.  Forests  of  pine,  spruce,  and  fir  are  found  in  the  north. 
The  May  winds  are  loaded  with  the  fragrance  of  apple,  peach,  and  other  orchard 
trees.  Countless  shrubs  and  flowers  adorn  hill  and  dale.  Broad  pastures  and  rich 
green  meadows  are  seen.  Fields  of  wheat,  corn,  oats,  and  other  grains  wave  in 
the  summer  wind,  and  vineyards  cover  many  a  slope. 

In  the  Warm  Temperate  Zone,  the  live  oak,  laurel,  oleander,  and  myrtle,  with 
large,  stiff,  evergreen  leaves  are  characteristic  trees;  oranges,  figs,  olives,  and 
pomegranates  are  among  the  fruits.  Corn,  cotton,  tea,  and  the  mulberry  and 
grape  are  cultivated.  Flowering  trees  like  the  magnolia,  with  its  large,  beauti- 
ful, and  fragrant  blossoms,  and  the  dwarf  palm  are  found  in  the  Old  World  and 
in  the  New.  Eice  and  sugar-cane  indicate  that  we  are  near  the  Torrid  Zoue, 
where  these  plants  find  their  best  home. 

Within  the  Tropical  Zone  are  the  greatest  abundance  of  light,  heat,  and  mois- 
ture, and  vegetable  life  appears  in  strange  forms  and  dazzling  splendor.  Spring 
returns  with  every  rising  sun;  new  flowers  bloom  every  day,  and  many  trees  bear 
blossoms  and  fruit  at  the  same  time.  Ferns  grow  to  the  size  of  forest  trees,  and 
some  species  of  grasses,  such  as  the  bamboo,  become  real  trees,  sixty  or  seventy 
feet  high,  from  whose  hollow  trunks  homes  and  even  whole  cities  are  built.  A 
single  tree  in  a  tropical  forest  often  supports  hundreds  of  twining  plants  with 
leaves  of  curious  forms  and  varied  hues  and  numberless  brilliant  flowers. 

Palms  of  many  varieties,  with  their  tall,  slender  trunks,  bear  their  grand 
foliage  and  flowers  above  other  trees  of  the  forest.  The  banana,  with  its  wide- 
spread leaves  and  huge  bunches  of  fruit,  grows  about  every  tropical  home.  Here, 
too,  we  see  the  rice  plant  which  feeds  more  than  half  the  human  family;  the 


M 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— FOOD  PLANTS. 


manioc,  which  is  the  bread  of  the  tropics;  the  bread-fruit  tree  on  which  grow  large 
loaves  ready  for  baking;  and  coffee,  cocoa,  the  fragrant  vanilla,  and  spices  for  all  the 


world. 


RANGE  OF  PLANTS  MOST  USEFUL  TO  MAN. 


Food  Plants. — Wheat  thrives  in  America  as  far  north  as  latitude  55°  and  in 

Europe  as  high  as  60°.     It  blights  in  regions  of  great  heat,  and  is  produced  in  the 

tropics  only  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  the  sea.     The  cooler  portions  of  the 

South  Temperate  Zone  are  favorable  to  its  growth. 

The  -wheat  plant  is  not  known  in  a  wild  state,  but  botanists  think  it  first  came  from  Central  Asia.  It 
formed  the  bread  of  civilized  man  further  back  than  history  dates.  In  the  rock  tombs  of  Egypt,  with  the 
embalmed  dead  who  were  laid  to  rest  thousands  of  years  before  Christ,  it  is  said  that  modem  explorers 
have  found  grains  of  this  precious  cereal. 

Barley  is  more  widely  distributed  than  any  other  grain.  It  is  adapted  to  cold 
and  to  warm  climates,  and  is  raised  by  the  peasantry  of  Europe  in  latitudes  where 
no  other  grain  will  ripen.  One  variety  grows  on  the  plateau  of  Thibet,  14,000  feet 
above  the  sea.     Barley  is  used  for  bread  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 

Eye  and  oats  flourish  in  the  cooler  portions  of  the  Temperate  Zones. 

The  potato  is  a  native  of  the  high,  tropical  valleys  of  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Chili, 

and  several  varieties  are  still  found  in  a  wild  state  in  the  last-named  countries. 

Though  indigenous  to  tropical  America,  it  does  not  grow  in  the  lowlands  of  the 

Torrid  Zone,  but  only  in  valleys  several  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.      It  is  most 

at  home  in  the  cooler  portions  of  the  United  States  and  of  Southern  Canada.     In 

Europe  it  is  cultivated  up  to  latitude  60°. 

The  common  jiotato,  which  is  now  a  part  of  the  daily  food  of  millions  of  mankind,  was  hardly  kno-wn 
to  the  people  of  Europe,  outside  of  Ireland,  until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  but  little 
earlier  in  our  own  country,  so  that  the  eighteenth  century  may  be  said  to  have  given  the  civilized  world 
this  new  article  of  food. 

Corn,  or  maize,  delights  in  a  warm  climate,  but  it  ripens  in  all  latitudes  from 

50°  north  to  40°  south,  though  it  does  not  grow  well  in  the  intensely  hot  coast  lands 

of  the  Torrid  Zone.    Its  geographical  range  extends  over  three-fourths  of  the  earth's 

surface,  and  it  is  the  most  important  grain  raised  by  American  farmers. 

Indian  com  is  indigenous  to  America.  It  has  always  formed  the  principal  food  of  the  Indian  tribes, 
from  which  fact  its  name  is  derived.  After  the  settlement  of  America  it  was  introduced  into  Southern 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  where  it  spread  with  great  rapidity,  becoming  the  food  of  many  barbarous 
tribes.  It  cannot  be  grown  in  the  British  Isles,  or  other  countries  of  Northern  Europe,  because  there  is  too 
little  summer  heat.     The  golden  corn  is  another  gift  of  America  to  the  Old  World. 

Eice  is  the  principal  food  of  more  than  half  of  mankind.  In  India,  China,  and 
in  many  tropical  islands  it  is  the  "staff  of  life,"  constituting  a  part  of  every  meal 
among  the  wealthy,  and  almost  the  sole  food  of  the  poorer  classes.  It  delights  in 
low,  swampy  grounds,  and  its  growth  is  limited  to  the  warm  belt  between  40°  north 
and  35°  south  latitude. 

The  Madeira  and  Tahita  sugar-cane  grow  in  the  warm  latitudes  of  every  conti- 
nent, but  some  varieties  of  cane,  such  as  the 
Chinese,  mature  in  those  parts  of  the  Tem- 
perate Zone  where  corn  is  raised  with  suc- 
cess. 

The  banana  grows  in  the  warm  countries 
of  both  hemispheres.  No  other  food  plant 
yields  so  abundantly.  An  acre  of  bananas  is 
said  to  produce  as  much  nourishment  as  44 
acres  of  potatoes. 

Darwin  tells  us  that  in  the  island  of  Tahita,  in  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean,  the  wild  banana  reaches  a  height  of  20  to  25  feet, 
with  stems  3  to  4  leet  in  circumference.  The  earth  under  the 
plants  is  sometimes  thickly  covered  -with  the  fallen  fruit, 
which  grows  beneath  a  cluster  of  leaves  at  the  top  of  the 
stem.  Tlie  leaves  are  from  6  to  10  feet  long  and  alraut  1 
foot  wide,  and  are  often  used  as  a  thatch.  The  natives  wrap 
the  green  bananas  in  leaves  and  roiust  them  on  stones  heated 
in  a  fire  of  sticks.  The  choice  green  parcels  are  then  eaten 
with  water  dipped  from  a  stream  with  a  cocoauut  shell. 

Mandioca,  or  manioc,  from  which  tapioca  is 

made,  is  indigenous  to  South  America,  but  grows  in  other  trojjical  countries.     Every 

part  of  this  plant  is  useful.    The  leaves  and  stalks  are  eaten  by  horses  and  its  turnip-like 


^ 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— JTOETH  AMEEICA— PLANT  LIFE. 


47 


roots  are  gl-odnd  into  pulp,  which  is  pressed,  dried,  and  baked, 
forming  the  principal  food  in  Brazil  and  in  some  other  coun- 
tries.   It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  juice  is  poisonous. 

The  bread-fruit  tree  is  a  native  of  the  warm  islands  of  the 
Pacific.  The  fruit  grows  to  weigh  some  four  pounds,  and  when 
baked  resembles  in  taste  light  wheat  bread.  It  supplies  food 
for  millions  of  human  beings. 

Beverage  Plants. — Cacao,  of  which  chocolate  is  made,  tea, 
and  coffee  grow  in  warm  countries.  The  East  Indies  are  famed 
for  their  spices.  Cloves,  cinnamon,  nutmeg,  pepper,  and  allspice 
are  confined  to  a  hot  belt  near  the  Equator. 


Plants  Used  for  Clothing. —  Cotton  is  the  most  important 
textile  plant.  It  likes  a  warm  climate  and  its  range  covers 
half  the  earth.  The  United  States,  Brazil,  Egypt,  and  India 
supply  the  mills  of  most  of  the  world.  Silk  is  produced  most 
largely  in  the  Warm  Temperate  Zone.  Flax  and  hemp  delight 
in  the  climate  of  the  Temperate  Zone  between  25°  and  50°  north. 

Medicinal  Plants. —  Quinine,  sarsaparilla,  castor  oil,  bal- 
sams, and  gums  come  from  the  warm  zones. 

Vegetation  of  Different  Continents. —  Owing  to  differences 
in  temperature  and  moisture,  dependent  on  position,  elevation, 
the  direction  of  prevailing  winds,  etc.,  the  continents,  and  even 
different  portions  of  the  same  continent,  though  in  the  same 
latitude,  are  distinguished  one  from  the  other  by  a  character- 
istic vegetation. 

Queries. — Who  was  Linnseus,  and  why  is  he  called  great?  From  what 
poem  is  the  couplet  on  page  43  taken?  What  is  meant  by  "edible  berries?" 
What  is  the  difference  between  deciduous  and  evergreen  trees?  What  are 
"pungent  spices?"  What  are  "cereals?"  What  plants  are  said  to  be  indige- 
nous? What  is  a  textile  plant?  What  is  meant  by  the  expression  "staff  of 
life  ? ' '    What  does  the  term  ' '  economic  purposes ' '  signify  ? 

NORTH  AMERICA. 

(Plant  Life.) 

Forests. — North  America  abounds  in  magnificent  forests. 
In  the  United  States  alone  there  are  no  less  than  800  species 
of  trees  and  shrubs,  400  of  which  are  large  enough  to  be  called 
trees.  About  120  species  grow  to  be  100  feet  in  height,  12  reach 
200  feet,  and  5  or  6  sometimes  reach  300  or  even  more.  Over 
120  species,  of  which  the  cone-bearing  form  nearly  one-half,  are 
used  for  economic  purposes. 

The  marvelous  autumn  tints  of  our  forests  of  deciduous  trees,  ranging 
through  all  shades  of  color  from  fiery  red  to  deepest  green,  give  our  landscapes 
a  beauty  characteristic  of  this  continent. 

Pacific  Highland  Region. — As  a  whole,  this  is  the  arid 
region  of  the  continent,  but  that  portion  lying  west  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  the  Cascade  Mountains  has  an  abundance  of  mois- 


ture, and  is  not  included  in  the  arid  section.  Along  the  west- 
ern slopes  of  these  ranges  and  near  the  coast  from  Cape  Men- 
docino northward  into  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  are,  perhaps, 
the  heaviest  forests  on  the  globe.  They  are  composed  of  differ- 
ent varieties  of  evergreen  trees,  thousands  of  which  are  200  feet 
high,  and  many  much  larger,  even  up  to  300  or  350  in  height 
and  from  8  to  15  feet  in  diameter.  The  redwood;  the  white, 
red,  and  yellow  pine;  the  red,  black,  and  yellow  fir,  and  the 
white  cedar  are  among  the  chief  varieties. 

The  Sequoi  Gigantea,  "Giant  of  the  Sierras,"  is  the  largest,  but  not  the  tall- 
est, tree  known.  It  is  not  found  outside  of  California,  and  only  in  a  few  groves 
in  that  sfcite.  Some  of  the  trees  now  standing  are  over  300  feet  high,  and  from 
45  to  60  feet  in  girth,  and  the  remains  of  those  that  have  fallen  show  a  still 
larger  growth.  The  rings  of  one  of  these  fallen  trees,  not  of  the  largest  size, 
indicate  an  age  of  2,000  years.  "The  Keystone  State,"  the  tallest  tree  now 
remaining,  is  325  feet  in  height,  and  its  girth,  six  feet  ifrom  the  ground,  is  45 
feet. 

This  belt  is  noted  not  only  for  its  trees,  but  for  its  grain, 
vegetables,  and  fruits,  the  latter  ranging  from  oranges,  grapes, 
and  figs  in  the  semi-tropical  south,  to  apples  and  other  orchard 
products  in  the  north. 

From  the  eastern  limit  of  the  "Great  Plains"  to  the  slopes 
of  the  Sierras,  and  stretching  from  the  high  plateaus  of  Mexico 
to  Alaska,  is  the  region  of  scanty  rainfall,  and  only  three  per 
cent  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  forests.  These  forests  are 
composed  mostly  of  evergreens,  and  are  found  on  the  slopes  of  the 
higher  mountains,  and  sometimes  extend  over  the  more  elevated 
plateaus.  Large  tracts  are  covered  with  dwarf  cedars  and  pines, 
of  no  value  except  for  fuel.  The  heavier  forests  are  in  the  north, 
vegetation  decreasing  toward  the  south,  as  the  climate  grows 
hotter  and  drier.  The  lower  mountains,  and  hills  in  countless 
numbers,  are  destitute  of  trees. 

Most  of  the  plateaus,  plains,  valleys,  and  bordering  slopes  are  covered  with 
buffalo  grass,  a  short,  tufted,  nutritious  grass,  which  once  furnished  food  for 
vast  herds  of  buffaloes  that  ranged  over  this  section.  But  there  are  tracts,  es- 
pecially in  the  south,  so  barren  that  one  may  travel  for  days  over  regions  where 
nothing  but  cacti  and  wild  sage  are  to  be  seen.  Some  localities  in  the  Great 
Basin  are  so  arid  that  absolutely  nothing  will  grow,  and  the  eye  is  greeted  by 
broad  wastes  of  sand  or  glistening  alkali. 

Agriculture  in  this  region  must  depend  on  irrigation.  It  is  said  that  much 
of  the  land  on  which  now  grows  nothing  but  wild  sage  may  be  made  highly 
productive;  but  the  water  supply  of  the  streams  is  far  too  limited  to  irrigate 
more  than  a  small  portion  of  these  wastes. 

The  Plains. — The  Great  Plains  east  of  the  Eocky  Mountains 
are  covered  with  buffalo  grass  in  the  north,  and  grama  grass  in 
the  south,  except  in  barren  localities,  where  the  prickly  pear, 
sage  brush,  and  yucca  take  their  place.  Near  the  mountains, 
where  there  are  many  streams,  the  grass  is  abundant.  No  trees 
are  seen  except  in  thin  skirts  along  the  water-courses,  and  this 
whole  belt,  from  the  llanos  of  Texas  far  into  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  thousands  of  miles,  is  a  sea  of  short  grass  suitable  for 
pasturage. 

Mexico  and  Central  America. —  It  is  said  that  Mexico  has 
over  100  species  of  timber-trees  and  cabinet- woods,  12  species 
of  dye-woods,  17  oil-bearing  plants  and  trees,  8  varieties  of  gum 
tree,  and  60  medicinal  plants. 

On  the  low  coast  lands,  where  the  heat  is  great  and  the  atmos- 
phere is  humid  or  moist,  flourish  the  mahogany,  chocolate  tree, 
banana,  indigo  plant,  cotton  and  coffee  trees,  sugar-cane,  and 
almost  every  variety  of  tropical  fruit. 

Eising  to  the  tierra  templada,  which  embraces  all  the  middle 
levels  having  an  elevation  of  3,000  to  8,000  feet,  there  is  the 
climate  of  perpetual  spring.  Here  the  evergreen  oak  forms 
magnificent  woods,  and  all  varieties  of  grains  and  fruits  of  the 


48 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— SOUTH  AMERICA— PLANT  LIFE. 


Temperate  Zone  are  raised.  On  the  lower  portions  of  this  region 
and  in  the  valleys,  oranges,  lemons,  figs,  pineapples,  grapes, 
sweet  potatoes,  and  scores  of  luscious  wild  fruits  abound. 

From  8,000  feet  upward  on  the  tierra  fria  the  air  is  cooler, 
the  sky  is  clear  and  cloudless,  and  all  traces  of  tropical  vegeta- 
tion have  disappeared.  The  coniferous  trees  have  taken  the 
place  of  the  oaks  of  the  middle  plateau,  and  the  olive  tree  re- 
fuses to  grow.     Wheat  and  barley,  however,  still  mature. 

Large  tracts  on  the  most  elevated  portions,  and  long  stretches  of  the  moun- 
tain summits  are  harren,  as  are  the  regions  northward  in  the  United  States.  A 
few  stalks  of  grass,  a  cactus  clump,  a  stunted  juniper,  or  a  half-dried  yucca 
constitute  nearly  all  the  vegetation  of  this  scantily  watered,  unsheltered  soil. 

Atlantic  Highland  Region. — The  Appalachian  region  has 
an  abundance  of  rain,  and  is  very  different  from  the  Pacific  High- 
lands in  the  character  of  its  vegetation.  No  other  temperate 
climate  produces  so  large  a  number  of  valuable  hardwood  trees. 
Forests  originally  clothed  the  mountains  to  their  very  summits 
— their  eastern  slopes  to  the  Atlantic  as  well  as  most  of  their 
longer  western  slopes  to  the  Mississippi. 

Most  of  the  prairies  of  the  United  States  lie  west  of  a  line  drawn  from  Gal- 
veston, Texas,  to  Toledo,  Ohio.  East  of  this  line  an  almost  unbroken  forest 
once  stretched  to  the  Atlantic. 

While  the  deciduous  trees  predominate,  there  are  pine  for- 
ests from  Maine  to  Louisiana.  The  various  kinds  of  oak,  maple, 
birch,  walnut,  ash,  spruce,  and  fir  are  found.  The  Ohio  Valley 
is  noted  for  its  black  walnut,  its  tulip  and  ash;  Maine  and  the 
Carolinas  for  their  fir  and  pine;  Florida  for  its  live  oak,  useful 
in  ship  building. 

Though  the  finest  of  the  timber  has  been  cut,  and  no  grand,  unbroken  for- 
ests like  those  which  Daniel  Boone  found  in  Kentucky  now  remain,  there  is 
still  much  valuable  timber  in  the  mountains  throughout  their  whole  extent, 
and  on  their  eastern  and  we-stern  slopes. 

Region  of  the  Great  Lakes.— From  the  headwaters  of  the 
Mississippi  eastward  over  the  whole  region  bordering  on  the 
Great  Lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence  to  its  gulf,  in  the  United  States 
and  also  in  Canada  as  far  north  as  James  Bay,  is  a  magnificent 
forest  region,  consisting  of  large  tracts  of  pine,  fir,  and  cedar, 
and  other  tracts  of  almost  every  variety  of  hardwood  that  grows 
in  this  latitude.  Large  portions  of  this  forest  have  already  fallen 
before  the  woodman's  axe,  but  much  timber  yet  remains. 

The  Prairie  Belt.— Between  the  plains  and  the  timbered 
region  is  the  fertile  prairie  belt  extending  from  the  Gulf  to  Great 
Slave  Lake.  Here,  when  summer  smiles,  grow  the  wild  prairie 
grass  and  flowers — ^a  sea  of  verdure  divided  by  narrow  belts  of 
timber  along  the  streams  and  dotted  with  groves  of  deciduous 
trees,  circling  around  lakes  or  covering  northern  slopes.  Fur- 
ther north  are  evergreen  forests  stretching  along  the  Mackenzie 
River  almost  to  the  Arctic  Ocean;  but  eastward  and  north  of 
the  Churchill  River  the  trees  become  mere  dwarfs,  and,  at  last, 
are  no  longer  seen. 

Grains,  vegetables,  and  fruits  flourish  in  the  rich  soil  of  the 
prairie  belt  wherever  it  has  been  turned  by  the  plow. 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

(Plant  Life.) 

Selvas  of  the  Amazon. — The  Amazon  and  its  tributaries 
drain  regions  of  great  heat  and  moisture,  favorable  to  a  lux- 
uriant growth  of  vegetation,  and  here  we  find  the  largest  and 
most  wonderful  forests  of  the  globe. 


This  forest  region  may  be  divided  into  three  sections,  the 
first  covering  the  low  delta  from  the  mouth  of  the  Xingu  to 
the  sea;  the  second  extending  500  miles  above  the  first;  the 
third  stretching  to  the  Andes,  at  least  1,200  miles  in  a  direct 
line. 

The  palm  trees  are  the  chief  among  the  giant  vegetable 
growths  of  the  delta,  but  they  are  mingled  with  other  trees, 
and  do  not  form  the  bulk  of  the  forest.  The  ubussu  palm,  with 
its  erect,  stem-like  column,  80  feet  high,  and  its  massive  crown 
of  fan-shaped  fronds;  and  the  jupati  palm,  with  its  leaves,  each 
6  feet  broad  and  50  feet  in  length,  are  peculiar  to  this  section. 
Thousands  of  climbing  plants  overrun  all  the  trees,  and  their 
great  diversity  of  stem,  foliage,  and  flower  forms  a  striking 
feature  of  the  high  forest  walls  that  everywhere  border  the  in- 
terminable network  of  creeks  and  lagoons. 

Above  the  Xingu,  there  are  wide  stretches  of  open,  sandy 
savanna,  with  coarse  innutritions  grass.  Patches  of  forest  are 
scattered  here  and  there,  and  the  islands  and  banks  of  all  the 
streams  are  heavily  wooded.  The  turbid,  yellow  river  bears 
along  uprooted  trees  and  islets  of  aquatic  plants  torn  from  the 
banks  by  the  waters. 


%¥« 


CAJA  NUT,   USED  FOK  MAKING  WINE. 


GUAVA,  USED  FOR  MAKING  JELLY. 


Above  the  mouth  of  the  Madeira,  we  enter  a  forest  1,200 
miles  in  length  and  800  to  1,000  miles  in  width.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  miles  of  road  in  the  vicinity  of  the  towns  and 
the  openings  formed  by  the  rivers,  this  forest  is  unbroken,  with- 
out paths,  and  impenetrable.  Its  plants,  as  well  as  its  animals, 
have  a  strange  tendency  to  climb. 

Many  of  the  creepers  unite,  forming  huge  cables  or  ropes  of  several  strands, 
while  the  stalks  of  others  are  twisted  in  a  thousand  ways,  coiling,  like  snakes, 
around  the  trunks  of  trees  and  forming  gigantic  folds  about  their  thick  branches. 
Some  trail  along  zigzag-fashion  or  shape  themselves  like  the  steps  of  a  ladder 
leading  to  great  heights.  Flowers  and  fruits  are  found  in  the  mass  of  loliage 
above.  All  below  is  dark  and  damp,  with  neither  green  turf,  flowers,  nor  foli- 
age to  beautify  the  ground. 

'  'A  tropical  forest  is  not  so  majestic  and  regular  as  a  forest  of  firs  and  larches. 
It  is  a  chaos  of  verdure;  an  accumulation  of  interlacing  foliage  where  the  eye 
vainly  seeks  to  distinguish  innumerable  vegetable  forms.  Above  the  large, 
tufted  tree-tops  others  are  perceived,  and  palm  trees  rise  united  to  eacli  other 
by  an  inextricable  network  of  vines.  Branches  and  leaves  of  every  variety  are 
disposed  in  plumes,  fans,  and  garlands;  orchids  expand  their  strange  flowers 
in  the  air.  Trees  which  have  fallen  from  age  disapi)ear  under  the  mass  of 
flowers,  and  the  greater  part  of  those  still  upright  are  themselves  surrounded 
by  spiral  stems  of  parasites  with  elegant  foliage."  * 

The  forest  region  of  the  Amazon  spreads  over  the  Brazilian 
Highlands  along  all  the  tributaries  of  the  great  river,  but  the 

*  Consult  Beclus,  VoL  L 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— SOUTH  AMERICA— PLANT  LIFE. 


trees  are  less  lofty  and  farther  apart.  There  are  trees  whose 
boughs  are  one  mass  of  bloom.  The  long,  broad,  glossy  leaves 
of  the  swampy  forests  disappear,  and  in  their  stead  flowers  are 
abundant,  and  a  vast  variety  of  exquisite  ferns  ornament  the 
glades.  On  the  loftiest  elevations  the  somber  Brazilian  pine 
adds  to  the  beauty  of  the  woodlands. 

The  tropical  forests  of  the  Amazon  extend  over  the  eastern  foot-hills  and  up 
the  slopes  of  the  Andes,  the  character  of  the  vegetation  changing  according  to 
elevation.  One  may  stand  on  the  snow  line  of  tlie  Cordilleras,  with  the  lichen 
beneath  his  feet,  and  look  down  upon  every  zone  of  vegetation. 

In  the  tropical  forests  of  South  America  grow  many  trees 
valuable  for  timber,  resin,  fiber,  oil,  dyes,  or  fruit,  among  which 
are  the  India  rubber,  Brazil  wood,  used  for  coloring,  rosewood, 
chinchona,  cacao,  wax  palm,  aud  cow-tree. 

Brazil  nuts  are  the  seeds  of  a  beautiful  tree  which  reaches  the  height  of  100 
feet.  The  seeds,  to  the  number  of  about  24,  are  inclosed  in  a  round,  woody 
covering,  nearly  as  large  as  a  man's  head.  They  are  valuable  for  oil  which  is 
burned  in  lamps,  as  well  as  for  food. 

The  Llanos. — The  llanos  of  the  Orinoco,  as  we  have  learned, 
are  immense  treeless  plains.  During  the  dry  season  the  ground 
is  parched;  deep  cracks  come  in  the  earth;  vegetation  dies  and 
is  blown  about  by  the  winds;  not  a  green  thing,  nor  a  living 
creature,  is  to  be  seen.  The  earth  is  a  desert.  "When  the  sun 
returns  from  its  southern  journey,  bringing  its  welcome  raiuj 
all  nature  is  quickened;  the  apparently  dead  and  dry  roots  re- 
vive and  send  up  living  shoots,  and,  in  a  brief  period,  there  is 
a  sea  of  waving  grass  and  flowers. 

Some  of  the  gra.ss  is  soft  and  pliable  as  silk  and  of  the  most  nutritious 
qualities.  It  seems  to  melt  away  in  the  mouths  of  cattle  that  come  in  countless 
herds  to  feed  upon  it. 

Skirting  the  low-banked  streams  and  channels  on  the  borders  of  the  plains 
are  thin  fringes  of  the  palm,  whose  leaves  are  used  for  thatching  houses  and 
making  hats  and  fans.  These  palms,  seen  through  the  hazy  air  of  the  plains, 
appear  like  distant  ships. 

On  the  Lower  Orinoco  are  dense  tropical  fores*^.«  in  which 
grow  the  lignum  vitfe,  whose  wood  is  so  hard  that  it  turns  the 
edge  of  the  sharpest  tools.  Brazil  wood,  a  valuable  timber  from 
which  coloring  matter  is  extracted,  is  so  common  that  fences 
are  made  of  it.  On  the  Upper  Orinoco  grows  the  cow-tree, 
which  Is  thus  described  by  Humboldt: 

"On  the  parched  side  of  a  rock  grows  a  tree  with  dry  and  leathery  foliage, 
its  large,  woody  roots  scarcely  penetrating  into  the  ground.  For  several  months 
in  the  year  its  leaves  are  not  moistened  by  a  shower;  its  branches  look  as  if  they 
were  dead  and  withered ;  but  when  the  trunk  is  bored,  a  bland  and  nourishing 
milk  flows  from  it.  It  is  at  sniirise  that  the  vegetable  fountiiin  flows  most 
freely.  At  that  time  the  blacks  and  natives  are  seen  coming  from  all  pai-ts,  pro- 
vided with  large  bowls  to  receive  the  milk,  which  grows  yellow  and  thickens 
at  its  surface.  Some  empty  their  ves.sels  on  the  spot,  while  others  carry  them 
to  their  children.  One  imagines  that  he  sees  the  family  of  a  shepherd  who  is 
distributing  the  milk  of  his  flock." 

The  Pampas. —  Standing  on  the  pampas,  which  cover  most 
of  the  region  known  as  the  Argentine  Republic  and  much  of 
Uruguay,  the  traveler  sees  a  seemingly  interminable  ocean  of 
grass  and  flowers.  The  grass  is  coarser  than  that  found  on  the 
llanos,  the  clover,  which  grows  wild,  resembling  low  shrubs. 

On  bright  days  distant  fields  of  thistles,  which  grow  so  tall 
and  thick  as  to  afford  retreats  for  bands  of  robbers,  and  whose 
stems  are  used  for  fences  and  huts,  seem  to  him  like  forests  of 
timber;  and  coarse,  reedy  grass  around  dreary  marshes  becomes 
a  troop  of  horsemen.  Lakes  of  clear  water  spread  out  before 
him  to  disappear  when  he  presses  forward  to  slake  his  thirst. 
In  the  southern  part  of  this  region  the  plains  are  high  and  the 
vegetation  scant.  The  pampas  form  vast  pasture  grounds  on 
which  feed  millions  of  cattle  and  horses. 


On  the  river  above  Buenos  Ayres  are  whole  forests  of  peach  trees,  in  bloom 
in  the  month  of  August.  The  wood  of  the  peach  is  so  plentiful  that  it  is  used 
for  fuel.  On  the  delta  and  low  borders  of  the  stream  grow  dense  thickets  of 
seibo  trees,  a  thorny  plant  whose  branches  are  covered  with  gorgeous  purple 
flowers,  aud  whose  wood  is  used  for  making  bowls  aud  other  dishes. 

El  Gran  Chaco. — North  of  the  Salado  River  is  a  famous 
region  known  as  the  "El  Gran  Chaco,"  or  resort  of  wild  beasts, 
the  hunting  ground  of  Indian  tribes  that  here  find  a  refuge 
from  the  Spaniards.  In  the  rainy  season  the  wide  plains  pre- 
sent the  appearance  of  an  ocean  studded  with  islands.  In  one 
district  are  groves  of  palms,  in  another  the  mimosa,  and  so  on. 
Near  the  streams  the  forests  are  so  dense  that  the  ground  can 
scarcely  hold  the  vegetation  which  springs  from  it. 

The  Andes. — We  have  seen  how  the  vegetation  of  the  east- 
ern slopes  in  the  Torrid  Zone  changes  with  the  elevation  from  the 
most  luxuriant  palm  and  banana  groves  to  hardy  plants  of  the 
Cold  Temperate  and  even  the  Polar  Zone.  The  Pacific  slope,  in 
the  region  of  the  trade  winds  in  Peru  and  Northern  Chili,  is 
a  long,  arid  plateau,  much  of  it  an  utter  desert.  Here  and  there 
it  is  crossed  by  narrow,  deep  valleys,  made  rich  and  green  by 


THE  VEGETABLE  IVORY  PLANT. 


streams  formed  by  the  melting  snows  of  the  mountains.  Not 
a  drop  of  rain  falls  on  the  parched  earth,  but,  from  June  to 
October,  thick  mists  afford  moisture  sufficient  for  the  growth, 
in  favored  places,  of  a  little  verdure,  which  withers  on  the  first 
sunny  day. 

The  long,  high  plateaus  between  the  mountain  ridges  have 
little  vegetation  save  meadows  of  coarse  grass  oSering  scanty 
food  to  the  llama  and  alpaca.  The  closed  valleys  of  this  region 
have  a  delightful  climate,  and  the  grains,  fruits,  trees,  and  other 
plants  of  the  Temperate  Zone  are  raised. 

Further  south,  the  westerly  winds  give  an  abundance  of  mois- 
ture to  the  western  coasts,  while  the  eastern  slopes  are  parched. 
Scarcely  a  tree  can  be  found  on  the  slopes  toward  the  pampas 
in  the  latitude  of  Santiago,  while  the  western  shore  and  islands 
are  green  and  beautiful  clear  down  to  Magellan,  where  the  rug- 
ged lands  are  covered  with  dense  thickets  of  beeches  and  other 
hardy  trees  of  the  Temperate  Zone. 

Further  north,  the  mountain  valleys  of  Colombia  are  cele- 
brated for  their  fertility.    One  may  find  a  home  in  a  high  valley 


50 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— EUROPE— ASIA— PLANT  LIFE. 


where  the  frost  nips,  where  the  wheat  plant  thrives,  the  apple, 
white  clover,  and  dandelion  bloom,  or  he  may  descend  to  an 
altitude  where  the  plants  of  the  Warm  Temperate  Zone  are 
seen.  Taking  up  his  abode  still  further  down  the  stream, 
where  the  valley  broadens  into  low  plains,  he  may  dwell  amidst 
broad  leaves,  in  a  land  of  perpetual  summer  and  the  richest 
perfume. 

"A  moist  atmosphere,  laden  with  the  mingled  scents  of  the  plants,  escapes 
from  the  forest  and  spreads  itself  afar.  In  foggy  weather  travelers  have  recog- 
nized, at  one  hundred  miles  out  at  sea,  their  proximity  to  the  coasts  of  Colom- 
bia by  the  perfumes  diffused  abroad." 

At  the  fall  of  Tequandama,  in  Colombia,  the  water  plunges  from  the  zone 
of  apple  trees  and  rye,  and  falls  into  that  of  the  palms  of  Mauritius. 

Queries. — What  is  the  difference  between  a  savanna  and  a  prairie?  What 
are  aquatic  plants?  The  expression  "zigzag-fashion"  means  what?  Why  are 
some  plants  called  "parasites?"  What  is  meant  by  "bland  and  nonrishiug 
milk?" 

EUROPE. 

(Plakt  Life.) 

In  Europe,  nor,  indeed,  anywhere  in  the  Old  World,  shall 
we  find  the  vast  forests  or  the  gorgeous  vegetation  of  tropical 
South  America;  but  every  country  has  its  characteristic  plants. 

Scandinavia  has  its  forests  of  coniferous  trees;  Denmark  its 
beeches,  the  most  luxuriant  in  the  world;  England  its  oaks  and 
its  meadows;  Germany  its  lime  trees,  its  spruces,  and  silver  firs 
of  the  Black  Forest,  the  noblest  specimens  of  their  kind  in 
Europe;  Russia  its  birches;  the  Alps  their  clumps  of  walnut  or 
chestnut,  their  forests  of  larches,  their  rhododendrons  and  gen- 
tians; France  its  elms  and  beeches;  Spain  its  cork  oaks,  and 
Italy  its  cypresses,  olive  trees,  and  maritime  pines. 


Cork  is  the  bark  of  a  species  of  oak  which  grows  from  20  to  40  feet  high. 
When  the  trees  are  four  or  five  years  old  the  outer  bark  cracks  off  in  large  flakes. 
When  intended  for  the  market  this  bark  is  stripped  a  year  or  two  before  it 
would  fall  off,  and  if  care  is  taken  the  tree  is  not  injured,  and  the  process  may 
be  repeated  once  in  five  or  six  years,  one  tree  often  yielding  crops  for  a  century 
or  longer.  The  bark  is  removed  from  the  tree  by  means  of  a  large  knife  with  a 
curved  blade.     It  is  packed  in  bales  and  sent  to  market  in  that  form. 

As  seen  on  the  chart,  the  plants  of  Europe  may  be  divided 
into  several  zones.  In  the  extreme  north  and  northeast,  the 
vegetation  consists  of  mosses  and  Jichens.  In  the  southern  pen- 
insulas, which  are  sheltered  from  the  cold  north  winds  by  the 


Alps  and  other  mountain  ranges;  where  the  climate  is  tem- 
pered by  the  warm  Mediterranean,  and  by  the  African  deserts, 
grow  palms,  evergreen  oaks,  mulberries,  oranges,  lemons,  figs, 
pomegranates,  and  vines. 

The  pomegranate  is  a  fruit  of  fine  appearance  that  grows  on  a  shrub.  Some 
varieties  are  sweet  and  others  slightly  acid.  The  fruit  is  very  refreshing  in  hot 
climates.  The  flowers  are  fine.  The  shrub  makes  a  rapid  growth  in  our  South- 
em  States. 

Middle  Europe  yields  almost  every  variety  of  product  be- 
longing to  the  Temperate  Zone.  Between  the  Baltic  and  the 
Ural  Mountains  are  immense  forests  of  pine  and  other  cone- 
bearing  trees.  North  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian  are 
steppes,  with  grass  like  that  of  the  pampas,  but  with  too  little 
moisture  for  the  growth  of  forests. 

In  the  south  of  the  main  body  of  Europe  the  low  valleys 
and  plains  contain  vineyards,  grain  fields,  orchards  of  prunes 
and  pears,  and  groves  of  walnut,  chestnut,  and  mulberry  trees. 
Ascending  the  mountains,  we  pass  from  forests  of  oak,  and  of 
beach,  and  from  wheat  fields,  to  spruces,  pines,  and  the  hardier 
grains;  thence  to  shrubs,  Alpine  flowers,  and  snow. 

Those  plants  which  require  a  mild  winter  are  found  much 
further  north  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  than  further  inland.  Ire- 
land, the  Emerald  Isle,  is  named  for  its  green  fields. 

ASIA. 

(Plant  Life.) 

"Within  the  boundaries  of  a  continent  that  nearly  touches 
the  Equator,  whose  northern  shores  are  but  12°  from  the  pole, 
and  whose  plateaus  are  the  loftiest  in  the  world,  we  may  expect 
to  find  almost  every  variety  of  vegetable  life. 

In  the  extreme  north,  there  are  level,  marshy  wastes,  scarcely 
above  the  sea,  on  which  coarse  grass  and  mosses  grow  during 
the  short  summer,  when  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  thawed 
to  the  depth  of  a  few  inches. 

Further  south,  in  Middle  Siberia,  are  extensive  forests  of 

pine,  fir,  spruce,  birch,  larch,  and  other  hardy  trees,  but  on 

their  northern  borders  they  are  so  stunted  and  feeble  that  the 

larches  are  mere  shrubs,  with  branches  spread  over  the  ground. 

In  Southern  and  Western  Siberia  the  steppes  are,  in  some 

parts,  clothed  with  grass;  in  others,  they  are  wastes  of  sand 

or  of  salt. 

On  some  of  the  wastes,  far  from  running  water,  the  plants  clothe  themselves 
with  hairs  and  thorns,  and  distill  gums  and  oils  that  lessen  evaporation.  The 
saksaul  is  perfectly  leafless,  and  yet  produces  both  flowers  and  fruit.  So  close 
is  its  grain  that  it  sinks  in  water  and  emits  sparks  when  struck  with  an  axe. 

The  desert  regions  of  Western  Asia,  in  the  warm  temperate 
belt,  are  the  native  home  of  some  of  the  finest  fruits.  Here 
flourish  choice  apples,  pears,  plums,  peaches,  the  grape,  the 
pomegranate,  and,  above  all,  the  melon.  For  most  of  these 
fruits,  so  delicious  to  the  taste,  we  are  indebted  to  the  oases  in 
these  lands, — fertile  islands  in  wastes  of  sand.  Here,  too,  are 
fragrant  rose  gardens,  and,  where  the  land  is  irrigated,  grow 
corn,  cotton,  hemp,  and  madder. 

In  the  same  belt,  on  the  eastern  coast,  in  China  and  Japan, 

we  find  tea  gardens,  mulberry  groves,  the  camphor  tree,  and 

many  a  rice  field. 

The  camphor  laurel  is  a  tree  of  considerable  height,  with  evergreen  leaves 
and  yellowish-white  flowers.  Its  fruit  resembles  a  black  currant.  Every  part 
of  the  tree  has  a  strong  odor  of  camphor.  To  procure  the  camphor,  the  wood 
is  chopped  fine,  steeped  and  boiled  in  water,  the  steam  carrying  off  the  camphor, 
which  is  deposited  in  a  still,  in  minute  grains. 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— AFRICA— PLANT  LIFE. 


61 


Within  the  tropical  belt  of  the  mainland  and  islands  to  the 
south  and  east,  we  find  coifee,  the  opium  poppy,  cotton,  rice,  and 
sugar;  the  teak,  the  sago  palm,  the  bamboo,  and  the  banyan. 
Here  are  the  strong  spices,  the  clove,  the  nutmeg,  and  the  gin- 
ger, and  here  the  pepper  and  the  cinnamon. 

The  teak  is  a  noble  tree,  much  used  for  ship  building.  The  wood  resembles 
mahogany,  is  lighter  than  oak,  equally  strong,  and  far  more  durable.  Many 
ships  built  of  teak  have  been  found  seaworthy  after  plowing  the  ocean  for  more 
than  a  century.     Its  flowers  and  leaves  are  used  for  coloring,  and  for  medicine. 

In  the  great  highland  region  of  Central  Asia  we  see  a  scanty 
vegetation.  There  are  no  forests  except  on  the  mountains, 
where  grow  the  spruce  and  poplar.  The  little  land  suitable  for 
cultivation  is  in  the  valleys,  where  water  comes  from  the  melt- 
ing snows,  or  from  rain  that  falls  on  the  slopes.  A  belt  of  oases 
stretches  along  the  foot  of  the  mountains  in  Turkestan.  The 
grasses  spring  up  in  the  valleys  and  favored  places,  and  these 
are  by  far  the  most  valuable  vegetable  products  in  Thibet  and 
on  the  whole  great  Mongolian  Plateau,  most  of  which  is  a  desert 
covered  with  rocks  or  drifting  sands. 

AFRICA. 

(Plant  Life.) 

The  extreme  northern  part  of  Africa  is  in  the  same  plant 
zone  as  the  peninsulas  and  the  islands  of  Southern  Europe. 

The  date  palm  is 
the  tree  of  the  desert, 
growing  on  the  bor- 
ders and  springing 
from  the  dreary  wastes 
of  sand  or  rock  wher- 
ever there  is  a  little 
moisture.  It  grows 
to  a  height  of  30  to  60 
feet,  and  is  crowned 
with  40  to  80  leaves  or 
frondsStolOfeetlong, 
beneath  which  hangs 
the  fruit,  or  dates. 
The  tree  is  highly 
prized,  furnishing 
food  to  millions  of  the 
human  race. 

The  natives  of  North 
Africa,  Arabia,  and  Persia 
use  the  fruit,  green  and  dry, 
as  a  chief  article  of  diet. 
Wine  and  vinegar  are  made 
from  it.  The  crisp  leaves 
at  the  top  of  the  stem  fur- 
nish "palm  cabbage,"  which  is  highly  esteemed  as  food.  Palm  wine  is  made 
from  the  .sap.  The  roasted  seeds  are  used  for  coffee  and  for  oil,  and  the  refuse 
as  food  for  cattle.  Baskets,  bags,  and  mats  are  made  from  the  leaves,  the  fibers 
of  the  stems  are  tvristed  into  cordage,  and  the  stem  itself  is  used  in  building. 

The  large  oases  in  the  desert  produce  the  plants  and  fruits  of 
the  "Warm  Temperate  and  of  the  Tropical  Zone. 

South  of  the  desert,  in  moist,  equatorial  Africa,  we  find  a 
luxuriant  vegetation.  Along  the  low  coasts  and  in  many  places 
on  the  streams  and  lakes  are  dense  forests.  In  the  interior  are 
park-like  regions,  with  large  trees  without  undergrowth,  or 
broad  steppes  with  a  growth  of  grass  and  flowers  several  feet  in 
height.    The  land  is  exceedingly  fertile,  and,  where  cultivated, 


THE  DATK  PALM. 


produces  medicinal  plants,  rice,  maize,  cotton,  and  sugar-cane. 
On  the  table-lands  grow  wheat,  barley,  and  oats.  Among  the 
trees  of  this  belt  are  the  acacias,  or  gum-bearing  trees,  the  palm- 
oil  tree,  the  shea  or  butter  tree,  the  bombax  or  cotton  tree,  the 
baobab,  and  the  netteh,  which  is  spread  over  the  whole  of  Sou- 
dan, and  whose  fruit  resembles  a  bean  pod,  and  from  April  to 
June  contains  a  sweet,  pulpy  substance  which  furnishes  much 
of  the  food  of  caravans  crossing  that  region. 

The  palm-oil  tree  is,  by  far,  the  most  important  of  the  many  species  of  palm 
growing  in  Central  Africa.  It  is  a  thick-stemmed  tree,  the  leaves  of  which 
begin  a  few  feet  above  the  ground,  and  as  the  tree  grows  the  first  leaves  wither 
and  give  place  to  others  higher  up,  which  in  turn  wither  as  the  tree  becomes 
older.  When  it  attains  an  age  for  bearing  fruit,  its  graceful  leaves  spread  in  all 
directions,  and  at  the  point  where  they  branch  off  from  the  stem  a  huge  bunch 
of  red  or  yellow  plums  appears,  each  bunch  containing  from  800  to  1,000  oil- 
yielding  plums,  and  weighing  in  some  cases  50  pounds.  The  oil  is  of  deep 
orange  red,  and  has  a  pleasant  odor,  as  of  violets.  It  is  shipped  to  Europe  and 
America,  where  it  is  used  in  the  manufiicture  of  soap,  candles,  glycerine,  and 
as  a  lubricant. 

The  "shea"  or  "tree  butter"  is  derived  from  the  oil  or  fat  contained  in  the 
olive-like  seeds  of  the  butter  tree.  The  seeds  are  dried  and  then  boiled  to 
extract  the  butter,  which  is  more  solid  and  pleasant  to  the  taste  than  that  from 
cow's  milk,  and  will  keep  for  a  year  without  salting.  This  butter  forms  an 
important  article  of  food  and  of  commerce. 

South  of  the  Congo,  the  dense  coast  forests  disappear.  The 
land  rises  by  a  series  of  benches  to  the  great  central  plateau, 
5,000  or  6,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Eemarkable  changes  in 
the  vegetation  accompany  the  successive  elevations.  On  the 
first  or  dry  coast  bench  are  prickly  shrubs,  euphorbias,  and 
giant  baobabs,  with  their  short  trunks,  sometimes  100  feet  in 
circumference,  their  branches  loaded  with  gourd- like  fruit.  On 
the  next  plateau  are  taller,  shadier  trees  and  shrubs,  and  tall, 
broad-leaved  grasses,  which  give  the  country  a  different  aspect. 
On  the  highest  plateau,  creepers  clasp  the  larger  trees,  covering 
them  with  a  mass  of  foliage  and  flowers.  Still  further  inland, 
where  trees  become  scarce,  gigantic  grasses,  growing  from  5  to  15 
feet  high,  cover  the  vast  plains.  The  groundnut,  or,  as  we  call 
it,  the  peanut,  a  lovely  creeping  plant,  finds  its  best  home  in 
this  part  of  the  continent. 

The  region  of  the  Kalihari  Desert  is  remarkable  for  its  plants 
with  tuberous  roots  which  lie  buried  deep  in  the  parched  soil 
ready  to  spring  up  when  the  rainy  season  comes  on. 

One  kind,  called  the  Makuri,  is  seen  in  parts  of  the  desert  where  long-con- 
tinued dry  heat  has  parched  the  soil.  It  is  a  creeper,  and,  like  the  potato, 
deposits  under  ground  a  number  of  tubers,  some  as  large  as  a  man's  head,  at 
spots  in  a  circle  a  yard  or  more  from  the  stem.  The  natives  strike  the  ground 
about  the  plant  with  stones,  till,  by  hearing  a  difference  of  sound,  they  know 
the  water-bearing  tuber  to  be  beneath,  dig  it  out  and  drink  its  juice.  In  years 
when  more  than  the  usual  quantity  of  rain  foils,  vast  tracts  of  the  desert  are 
covered  with  wild  watermelons,  which  seem  designed  to  save  up  the  supply  of 
water  for  the  season  of  drought.* 

In  the  region  of  Cape  Colony,  though  there  are  no  large  for- 
ests, the  heaths,  an  order  of  shrub  plants,  number  300  or  400 
species  and  give  great  beauty  to  the  landscape.  In  the  months 
of  September  and  October  the  countless  varieties  of  bulbs  and 
orchids  cover  the  earth  with  blossoms  that  resemble  a  shower  of 
gaudy  butterflies.  Then  there  are  plants  with  hooked  horns 
and  prickles  which  lay  hold  of  the  clothing  and  invite  the  trav- 
eler to  "wait  a  little."  Wheat,  maize,  oats,  and  barley,  and  the 
strawberry,  pear,  guava,  and  European  fruits  thrive  under  culti- 
vation. 

The  eastern  coast  of  tropical  Africa  has  valuable  forests,  and 
is  capable  of  producing  large  quantities  of  cotton,  rice,  sugar, 
cloves,  cocoa,  pepper,  coffee,  indigo,  nutmegs,  cinnamon,  copal 
gum,  and  other  products  of  warm,  moist  regions. 

*  See  Livingstone's  Travels, 


62 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— AUSTRALIA— THE  SEA— PLANT  LIFE. 


Madagascar. — The  vegetation  along  the  coast  of  the  great 
island  of  Madagascar  is  wonderfully  luxuriant,  but  there  are 
wide  regions  in  the  south  which  are  but  sandy,  shadeless  plains. 

A  remarkable  plant  growing  in  many  parts  of  the  island  is  the  "Traveler's 
Tree."  It  lielongs  to  the  family  of  plantains,  and  sends  out  leaves  on  two 
opposite  sides  only,  spreading  like  a  huge  fan.  The  stalk  of  each  leaf  is  six  to 
eight  feet  in  length,  and  the  rich,  green  l)lades  five  or  six  feet  more.  Even  in 
the  driest  weather  the  leaf  stalks  of  the  full-grown  plant  always  contain  at  least 
a  quart  of  water  which  the  thirsty  traveler  may  djaw  by  piercing  the  base  of 
the  stalk. 

Queries. —  Is  the  date  palm  found  in  the  New  World?  What  is  meant  by 
" luxuriant  vegetation ? "  What  are  tuberous  roots?  Why  do  the  heaths  of 
South  Africa  bloom  in  the  months  of  September  and  October  instead  of  April 
and  May?  Cloves  are  what  part  of  the  plant?  Has  the  name  "cloves"  any 
connection  with  the  verb  cleave? 

AUSTRALIA. 

(Plant  Life.) 

Viewed  from  the  sea,  the  foliage  of  the  Australian  wood- 
lands is  of  a  somber  color,  and  without  the  contrasts  in  shade 
seen  in  our  own  forests,  where  the  variety  of  trees  is  so  great. 
The  vivid  green  of  spring,  the  softer  hues  of  summer,  and  the 
changing  tints  of  autumn  are  unknown.  Nearly  all  the  foliage 
hangs  vertically  from  the  branches,  and  one  may  ramble  in  the 
woods  without  being  in  the  shade. 

A  single  variety  of  plants  often  extends  over  vast  areas,  and 
this,  in  part,  accounts  for  the  monotonous  appearance  of  the 
landscape.  Yet  one  finds  spots  of  varied  and  exuberant  vegeta- 
tion, with  stately  trees,  countless  flowering  shrubs,  and  lovely 
twining  plants. 

It  is  said  that,  "America  has  its  prairies,  Asia  its  steppes, 
Africa  its  deserts,  and  Australia  its  scrubs,"  or,  as  we  might 
say  in  this  country,  extended  areas  covered  with  brush.  The 
"Mallee"  scrub  is  a  dwarf  species  of  the  eucalyptus.  The  fol- 
lowing description  is  from  the  writings  of  the  English  natural- 
ist, A.  E.  "Wallace: 

"The  appearance  of  the  'Mallee'  is  something  like  a  bushy  willow,  or 
osier,  the  stems  growing  close  together,  like  reeds;  so  close  that  there  are  often 
10  or  12  in  a  square  foot  of  ground.  They  grow  14  feet  high  without  a  branch, 
and  when  a  road  is  cut  through  a  scrub  of  this  kind  it  appears  like  a  deep 
trench,  or  as  if  inclosed  by  high  walls.  The  aspect  of  such  a  country  is  very 
gloomy.  From  an  eminence  you  see  nothing  but  a  dark-brown  mass  of  bushes 
as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach.  The  surface  is  generally  unbroken,  seeming  like 
a  heaving  ocean  of  dark  waves,  out  of  which,  here  and  there,  a  tree  starts  up 
above  the  brushwood,  making  a  mournful  and  lonely  landmark. 

On  a  dull  day  the  view  is  most  sad,  and  even  sunlight  makes  it  little  more 
cheerful,  for  seldom  bird  or  living  thing  gives  variety  to  the  scene,  while  light 
only  extends  the  prospect  and  makes  it  more  hopeless.  In  the  southeastern 
part  of  South  Australia  there  is  a  tract,  about  9,000  square  miles  in  extent, 
covered  with  an  unbroken  expanse  of  this  scrub,  and  similar  tracts  of  it  occur 
over  every  part  of  the  southern  half  of  Australia." 

Other  scrubs  are  formed  of  bushy  acacias,  armed  with  such 
long  spines,  or  thorns,  that  it  is  impossible  to  penetrate  the  mass 
of  vegetation. 

There  are  immense  level,  sandy  tracts,  which  are  dusty  in  the 
dry  season  but  boggy  in  the  wet,  covered  with  woody  vegeta- 
tion called  "heath,"  which  reaches  a  height  of  about  two  feet. 
Among  these  plants  are  many  with  bright-colored  flowers,  some 
of  which  are  ornaments  of  our  green-houses.  When  spring 
comes,  the  heath  is  one  wide  sea  of  bloom. 

No  plant  of  Australia  probably  covers  so  wide  a  surface  as  the  spinifex,  or 
porcupine  grass,  which  is  spread  for  hundreds  of  miles  over  sandy,  treeless 
plains,  rendering  them  almost  impa-ssable  to  men  or  beasts.  Fortunately  it  does 
not  grow  in  the  south,  and  is  unknown  in  the  settled  sections. 

The  streams  are  bordered  by  noble  gum  trees,  belonging  to 
the  genus  eucalyptus,  which  often  attains  a  height  of  250  feet 


and  a  diameter  of  3  to  6  feet.  The  timber  belts  often  mark  the 
courses  of  rivers,  as  they  wind  for  long  distances  through  the 
scrub,  giving  a  peculiar  feature  to  the  landscape. 

The  leaves  of  the  eucalyptus  are  leathery,  and  one  edge  is  always  turned 
toward  the  sky  so  that  both  surfaces  have  an  equal  amount  of  light.  They  are 
called  gum  trees  because  they  abound  in  resin,  which  is  used  for  medicinal  and 
other  purposes.  The  timber  is  excellent,  some  varieties  being  used  for  ship 
building. 

A  few  species  of  the  eucalyptus  form  dense  forests  on  the 
mountains.  "In  the  Dendenong  range,  about  40  miles  east  of 
Melbourne,  the  ravines  contain  numerous  trees  420  feet  high, 
and  one  fallen  tree  was  discovered  which  was  480  feet  in  length, 
probably  the  tallest  tree  in  the  world."  * 

The  most  singular  trees  are  the  beefwood  or  the  shea  oak,  with  long  droop- 
ing branches  entirely  destitute  of  leaves.  The  wood  is  soft  but  tough,  and  }ii\s 
the  color  of  lean,  raw  beef.  These  trees  are  found  in  the  wastes  of  the  interior, 
but  are  much  more  plentiful  in  the  south  and  west. 

Some  of  the  heaths  are  covered  with  grass  trees.  These  trees  have  a  rough 
stem  and  grow  some  10  or  12  feet  high.  From  the  top  springs  a  Vmnch  of  droop- 
ing, wiry  foliage,  from  the  center  of  which  rises  a  slender  rush-like  spike, 
which,  in  winter,  is  covered  with  white  star-shaped  flowers. 

Throughout  the  year  some  varieties  of  plants  are  in  bloom, 
and  the  "bush"  is  always  more  or  less  fragrant.  The  acacias, 
of  which  there  are  several  hundred  species  with  rich,  yellow 
blossoms,  make  the  landscape  very  beautiful  in  the  early  spring. 

Many  of  the  deep,  sheltered  mountain  valleys  in  New  South 
Wales  have  a  moist,  warm  climate,  and  here  are  found  palms 
and  the  Indian  fig,  with  its  winding  branches  and  clinging  para- 
sites. On  the  mountains  in  this  region  grows  the  "flame  tree," 
whose  large  bunches  of  red  flowers  make  the  slopes  conspicuous 
for  miles  out  at  sea. 

The  "fire  tree"  of  West  Australia,  whose  orange-colored  blossoms  make  it 
seem  like  a  tree  ablaze;  the  stenocarpus  of  Queensland,  50  feet  high,  and,  in  the 
season  of  bloom,  covered  with  orange-tipped  crimson  stamens;  and  the  rock 
lily  with  a  flower  stalk  30  feet  high,  bearing  a  crown  of  flowers  several  feet  in 
circumference,  are  most  interesting  plants. 

The  various  grains,  fruits,  and  vegetables  of  Europe  and 
America  have  been  introduced  and  cultivated  with  success;  cot- 
ton, wheat,  and  the  grape  are  important  products.  Many  plains 
and  slopes  are  covered  with  nutritious  grasses. 

THE  SEA. 

(Plant  Life.) 

The  sea  has  many  delicate  and  beautiful  plants,  and  others 
that  are  coarse  in  their  structure.  Some  float  freely  on  the 
waves,  while  others  cling  to  the  rocks  near  the  shore.  They 
are  not  uniform  in  color,  like  the  plants  on  land,  but  are  vio- 
let, orange,  green,  yellow,  pink,  or  brown,  with  every  interme- 
diate hue.  Some  of  its  plants. grow  in  warm  water  and  others 
in  cold.  None  but  microscopic  plants  exist  in  the  deepest  parts 
of  the  ocean.  Sea-weeds  abound  to  a  depth  of  15  fathoms;  they 
are  rare  below  a  depth  of  50  fathoms,  and  disappear  in  water 
deeper  than  200  fathoms. 

Along  some  coasts,  as  among  the  islands  ofi'  Alaska  and  British  Columbia, 
around  the  Falkland  Islands,  and  in  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  sea-weeds  are  so 
thick  as  to  impede  the  progress  of  ships  by  fouling  their  rudders  and  winding 
around  their  propellers. 

The  stems  of  one  kind  of  sea-weed  are  like  cables,  attaching  themselves  to 
the  rocks  so  strongly  that  large  boulders  are  lifted  to  the  surface  before  the 
weeds  can  be  torn  from  them.  They  are  sometimes  700  feet  in  length.  Gulf- 
weed,  as  it  is  called,  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  plants  of  the  ocean. 
It  floats  ux)on  the  water,  without  roots,  lives  and  bears  seed. 

The  Sargasso. — Within  the  circle  formed  by  the  currents 
of  the  Atlantic  is  a  sea  of  weeds  called  the  Sargasso,  covering 

*  Consult  Staoford'B  Compendium  of  Geogta,phj.—Autti  ilia. 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— DISTEIBUTION  OP  ANIMALS. 


53 


thousands  of  square  miles.  The  plants  composing  this  sea  are 
not,  as  was  once  supposed,  drifted  there  by  the  circling  waters, 
but  are  developed  and  grow  floating  on  the  surface,  and  without 
roots.  They  give  the  ocean  the  appearance  of  a  vast  marsh 
colored  greenish-yellow. 

The  companions  of  Columbus  were  filled  with  fear  when  their  little  ships 
encountered  the  long  runners  of  these  weeds,  which  held  them  back,  and 
threatened  to  put  an  unhappy  end  to  the  voyage. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS. 

The  land,  the  water  and  the  air  alike  teem  with  living  crea 
tures.     Every  hillside,  every  meadow,  every  tree  or  tuft  of  gra.ss 
has  its  inhabitants.     Innumerable  creatures  find  shelter  under 
stones,  bark,  and  decaying  leaves.    There  is  life  in  every  direc- 
tion we  turn  our  eyes. 

*        *        *        *        "The  flowery  leaf 
Wants  not  its  soft  inhabitants.     Secure 
Within  its  winding  citadel,  the  stone 
Holds  multitudes.     But  chief,  the  forest  boughs. 
That  dance,  unnumbered,  to  the  playful  breeze, 
The  downy  orchard,  and  the  melting  pulp 
Of  mellow  fruit,  the  nameless  nations  feed 
Of  evanescent  insects.     Where  the  pool 
Stands  mantled  o'er  with  green,  invisible 
Amid  the  floating  verdure,  millions  stray. 
Each  liquid,  too,  whether  it  pierces,  soothes, 
Inflames,  refreshes,  or   exalts   the  taste, 
With  varying  forms  abounds.     Nor  is  the  stream 
Of  purest  crystal,  nor  the  lucid  air, 
Though  one  transparent  vacancy  it  seems. 
Void  of  their  unseen  people." 

Nature  spreads  her  table  for  these  countless  millions  of 
creatures.  Most  of  the  land  animals  live  upon  plants,  eating 
either  their  leaves,  fruit,  shoots,  flowers,  stems,  bark,  or  roots. 
Hence,  the  animals  of  every  country  are  dependent  on  its 
plants  for  their  support.  Even  the  carnivora,  or  flesh-eaters, 
would  perish  were  there  no  plants  to  sustain  the  creatures 
they  devour.  In  the  sea,  where  plant  life  is  relatively  less 
abundant,  nearly  all  the  animals  are  camiverous.  "The  sea 
is  a  field  of  carnage." 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  habita- 
tion of  each  animal,  large  or  small,  must  be  limited  to  the 
region  where  its  food  is  found.  An  animal  that  lives  on  acorns 
may  have  a  range  as  wide  as  the  oak.  A  moss-eating  ani- 
mal is  found  in  a  region  where  moss  grows.  An  animal  whose 
food  is  some  variety  of  palm  must  inhabit  the  palm  zone. 

Animals  of  Different  Zones. — From  all  this,  it  follows  that 
there  are  zones,  or  belts,  of  animal  as  well  as  of  plant  life. 

The  cireumpolar  regions  of  North  America,  Europe,  and 
Asia  are  Inhabited  by  the  same  species.  Herds  of  reindeer 
and  musk  oxen  feed  on  the  moss  and  shrubs;  the  polar  bear 
makes  his  supper  of  fish  or  fowl;  seals  bask  in  the  scanty  rays 
of  the  Arctic  sun,  or  dive  for  their  scaly  food.  There  are 
white  foxes,  wolves,  sables,  ermines,  walruses,  and  whales. 
Snowy  owls,  falcons,  buntings,  ptarmigans,  and  other  white- 
feathered  birds  cleave  the  air. 

During  the  short  summer,  immense  flocks  or  sea-fowl  haunt  the  coasts.  On 
all  the  promontories,  and  in  all  the  inlets  of  Hudson  Bay,  Alaska,  Greenland, 
Nova  Zembla,  the  Hebrides,  the  Shetland,  the  Faroes,  Spitzbergen,  and  Nor- 
way, the  ledges  and  rocky  islets  are  crowded  by  birds  as  far  as  one  Ciin  see. 
When  they  set  off'  for  food  they  darken  the  air,  and  a  random  shot  brings  down 
dozens.     The  females,  covering  their  broods,  may  be  dispatched  with  a  stick. 


The  quadrupeds  of  these  regions  are  clothed  with  the  wannest  fur,  the  birds 
with  the  choicest  down,  and  some  creatures,  like  the  seal  and  the  whale,  are 
protected  by  layers  of  blubber  or  fat.  The  foxes,  sables,  ermine,  and  seals  sup- 
ply us  with  fur.     The  eider-duck  with  soft  down,  and  the  whale  with  oiL 

In  the  Cool  Temperate  Zone  are  great  numbers  of  fur-bearing 

animals.     The  forests,  lakes,  and  streams  swarm  with  them.     It 

is  the  best  home  of  the  marten,  the  otter,  the  mink,  the  fox,  the 

ermine,  and  the  beaver.    The  wolf  and  the  brown  bear  are  also 

found. 

Most  of  the  animals  of  the  jwlar  or  cold  belt  conld  not  endure  the  heat  of 
even  the  Temperate  Zones.  Robes  of  fur  are  too  warm  for  the  tropics.  The 
white  bear  in  the  menagerie  would  melt  without  his  cake  of  ice.  The  seal  and 
the  Arctic  whale  could  no  more  sport  in  the  tropical  seas  than  in  the  flames. 

Going  southward  from  the  regions  of  cold,  the  abundance 
and  variety  of  animated  creatures  increase  more  and  more.  In 
the  Temperate  Zones  are  found  the  greatest  number  of  useful 
animals,  such  as  the  ox,  the  cow,  the  horse,  and  the  sheep. 
The  grouse  and  the  turkey  are  among  the  game  birds.  Larks, 
thrushes,  and  nightingales  are  the  Jenny  Linds  of  song.  The 
eagle  and  the  hawk  are  birds  of  prey,  and  every  boy  knows  the 
wild  "tenants  of  the  wood,"  the  fields,  and  the  streams. 

How  different  is  the  Torrid  Zone  where,  as  a  writer  observes, 
"The  colossal  elephant  and  the  unwieldy  rhinoceros  crash 
through  the  primeval  forests;  the  lion,  the  tiger,  and  other  pred- 
atory beasts  prowl  through  the  thickets  seeking  for  their  prey; 
on  vast  plains  countless  herds  of  antelope  browse  in  fancied  se- 
curity, or  dash  swiftly  past  at  the  approach  of  danger;  gigantic 
snakes  lie  coiled  in  horrid  folds  among  the  bushes,  or  hang  from 
the  trees  awaiting  their  victims.  The  air  and  the  trees  swarm 
with  birds  of  gorgeous  plumage,  and  insects  of  strange  forms 
and  brilliant  colors.  Nor  are  the  waters  of  this  zone  less  bounti- 
fully provided  with  inhabitants;  every  form  with  which  we  are 
acquainted  in  our  own  seas  is  here  represented,  but  with  still 
greater  profusion  and  variety."  * 

But  animals  have  the  power  of  locomotion,  and  many  of 
them  are  not  confined  to  one  locality,  but  range  over  vast 
regions  in  quest  of  food,  or,  as  they  are  impelled  by  the  change 
of  seasons,  sometimes  crossing  the  boundaries  of  the  zones. 

Who  has  not  watched  water-fowl  on  their  way  to  the  northern  lakes  and 
streams,  when  spring  was  breaking  the  icy  bonds?  The  birds  that  gladden  us 
with  songs  when  summer  is  here,  fly  southward  on  the  approach  of  winter. 
They  follow  the  summer  and  have  no  winter  in  their  year.  Then  there  are  the 
wild  pigeons  that  sometimes  darken  the  sky  for  days  when  on  their  way  to  dis- 
tant feeding  or  nesting  grounds.  Among  insects,  vast  swarms  of  locusts  or 
grasshoppers  come  from  the  deserts  to  devour  every  green  thing. 

In  Europe  the  swift  swallow  and  the  cuckoo  wing  their  way  in  summer 
beyond  the  Arctic  Circle,  but  before  winter  sets  in  they  have  crossed  the  sea  to 
the  mild  air  of  Northern  Africa. 

"  In  September  the  stork  abandons  the  thatched  roof  of  the  German  peasant 
to  perch  on  the  cupolas  of  Egypt  or  Tunis,  but  in  spring,  when  the  air  of  Africa 
becomes  too  hot  and  dry,  finds  its  way  back  to  its  German  nest  on  the  roof." 

Among  the  larger  animals,  the  bison,  which  once  inhabited  our  western 
plains,  pressed  far  to  the  north  during  the  short  summer,  when  the  plains  and 
slopes  of  the  high  latitudes  were  green,  but  swept  southward  in  vast  herds  on 
the  approach  of  winter.  Ifroves  of  wild  reindeer  crop  the  moss  and  coarse  grass 
of  the  low  coasts  of  Northern  Siberia  in  summer,  but  move  to  the  south  when 
the  snows  bury  their  food. 

Only  a  limited  number  of  animals  are  fitted  to  spread  over 
wide  regions,  or  to  endure  great  diversities  of  climate.  The 
majority  are  confined  to  their  own  district,  beyond  which  they 
cannot  stray.  Some  species  live  in  forests,  others  in  marshes 
or  swamps,  others  on  open  plains;  some  require  the  moist,  hot 
air  of  the  tropics,  while  others  need  the  chilling  blasts  of  the 
poles. 

Animals  that  can  endure  great  differences  of  temperature,  or 

*  Comult  Jotuuon's  Natural  History. 


64 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— NOETH  AMEEICA— ANIMAL  LIFE. 


that  can  live  on  many  kinds  of  food,  may  find  obstacles  to  their 
diffusion.  Snow-covered  mountain  ranges  may  prevent  them 
from  reaching  other  regions  where  they  could  find  an  abun- 
dance of  food  and  shelter;  barren  deserts  may  stretch  between 
their  present  abodes  and  other  lands  equally  as  well  adapted 
to  their  existence.  Bodies  of  water  often  intervene  to  keep  ani- 
mals, as  well  as  plants,  of  opposite  shores  distinct.  The  oceans 
are  barriers  which  no  quadrnpeds,  and  but  few  birds,  can  cross. 
Man  has  aided  in  the  wide  distribution  of  the  most  useful 
animals.  The  ox,  the  cow,  the  horse,  the  domestic  sheep,  the 
goat,  the  cat,  the  dog,  the  barn-fowl,  and  even  the  honey  bee, 
were  conveyed  across  the  deep  by  him,  and  have  found  homes 
in  the  New  World,  in  Australia,  and  in  New  Zealand. 

The  dog  lias  a  wider  range  than  almost  any  other  animal.  He  can  live  in 
the  Frigid  Zone,  where  he  draws  his  master  swiftly  over  the  snow ;  in  the  Tem- 
perate Zone,  where  he  shares  the  hunter's  toil,  and  watches  the  bleating  flocks; 
and  in  the  Torrid  Zone,  where  he  keeps  his  indolent  master  company,  or  with 
his  hairless  body  draws  the  fever  from  his  master's  frame. 

The  same  quadrupeds,  birds,  reptiles,  and  insects  are  not 
found  in  all  portions  of  the  Temperate  or  of  the  Torrid  Zone. 
Huge  animals  are  not  seen  in  every  tropical  forest;  the  same 
varieties  of  insects  do  not  hover  over  every  tropical  pool.  The 
thrush,  the  nightingale,  and  the  lark  do  not  sing,  nor  does  the 
bald  eagle  soar  in  all  lands  of  the  Temperate  Zone. 

Then,  again,  the  mountains,  plains,  and  forests  of  a  conti- 
nent, though  crossed  by  the  same  parallel,  are  often  inhabited 
by  different  animals,  dependent  on  the  vegetation  of  the  sev- 
eral regions.  For  these  reasons  we  shall  do  well  to  take  a  sur- 
vey of  the  animal  life  of  each  of  the  continents. 

NORTH  AMERICA. 

(Animal  Life.) 

Among  the  animals  peculiar  to  North  America  are  the  griz- 
zly bear,  the  pouched  rat,  the  mocking  bird,  the  bluejay,  the 
blue  crow,  and  the  rattlesnake. 

That  portion  of  the  continent  where  the  winters  are  long  and 
severe  has  a  large  number  of  fur-clad  animals.  Some  of  these 
live  wholly  upon  the  land,  and  others  about  the  lakes  and 
streams  where  their  food  is  found.  The  musk  ox  and  the  rein- 
deer are  seen  during  the  short  summer  feeding  on  the  moss  and 
stunted  plants  of  the  far  north,  but  in  winter  they  retreat  to 
the  forest  regions  further  south. 

The  seal  is  very  abundant  on  the  coast  and  islands  of  Alaska 
and  of  Labrador.  After  the  ice  disappears,  innumerable  water- 
fowl congregate  about  the  lakes  and  streams.  These  northern 
regions  are  famous  breeding  places  for  several  varieties  of  birds 
and  the  sea  ledges  are  sometimes  covered  with  nests. 

The  mnsk  ox  Is  peculiar  to  the  polar  regions  of  North  America.  It  is 
about  one-third  the  size  of  the  common  ox,  one  of  them  weighing  from  300  to 
400  pounds.  The  horns  are  broad  at  the  base,  covering  the  brow  and  crown 
of  the  head.  The  hair  is  mostly  brown,  and  so  long  that  it  hangs  below  the 
middle  of  the  leg.  The  legs  are  short,  but  the  animal  runs  fa.st,  and  easily 
scales  rocky  ledges  impassable  to  horses.  They  live  in  herds  of  20  or  30,  and 
are  much  huntetl  by  the  Rsquimaux.  The  flesh,  when  lean,  has  a  strong  musky 
flavor,  but  is  relished  by  the  inhabitants  of  those  regions. 

In  the  temperate  portion  of  the  continent  are  found  the  bison, 
nearly  or  quite  extinct,  the  grizzly  and  black  bear,  the  panther, 
the  moose,  the  elk,  and  the  deer,  the  Eocky  Mountain  sheep, 
the  antelope,  the  red  and  gray  fox,  prairie  and  timber  wolves. 
Among  the  smaller  quadrupeds  are  beavers,  otters,  muskrats, 
minks,  raccoons,  badgers,  opossums,  weasels,  hares,  porcupines, 
wobdchucks,  gophers,  prairie  dogs,  and  squirrels. 


There  are  numerous  reptiles,  of  which  the  rattlesnake  is  the 
most  widespread  and  dangerous.  The  alligator,  of  the  southern 
bayous  and  streams,  attains  a  length  of  14  or  16  feet. 

There  are  several  hundred  species  of  birds,  many  of  them 
peculiar  to  this  continent.  The  wild  turkey,  now  disappearing, 
the  grouse,  the  partridge,  and  the  quail  are  found.  The  bald 
eagle,  the  hawk,  the  buzzard,  the  crow,  the  vulture,  and  the  owl 
are  among  the  rapacious  birds.  Herons,  cranes,  and  rails  are 
seen.  Swans,  wild  geese,  pelicans,  and  ducks  are  the  chief 
water-fowl.  Larks,  robins,  thrushes,  bluebirds,  humming  birds, 
kingfishers,  orioles,  cedar  birds,  whip-poor-wills,  grosbeaks,  cat- 
birds, and  jays  are  a  few  of  the  smaller  birds. 

Fish  are  found  in  almost  endless  variety;  the  chief  sorts  are 
brook  and  lake  trout,  shad,  salmon,  whitefisli,  which  are  pe- 
culiar to  the  Great  Lakes;  herring,  halibut,  mackerel,  bass, 
pike,  pickerel,  perch,  and  bluefish. 


I'KAIRIE-DOU    VILLAUK. 


The  prairie  dog,  or  Wish-ton-wish  of  the  Indians,  lives  in  burrows  on  the 
prairies  of  the  Missouri  and  Platte  rivers,  and  also  further  south  in  Texas  and 
New  Mexico,  and  on  the  borders  of  Sonora  and  California.  Often  hundreds  of 
families  are  collected  in  villages,  or  "dog-towns,"  as  they  are  called  by  trappers. 
At  the  opening  of  each  hole  is  a  small  mound  on  which  the  dog,  or,  more  prop- 
erly, squirrel,  may  be  seen  stretched  up  and  looking  about.  Burrowing  owls 
and  rattlesnakes  resort  to  the  holes  of  the  prairie  dogs,  whether  as  welcome 
guests  or  otherwise  the  naturalist  has  not  fully  decided. 

Besides  animals  similar  to  those  found  further  east,  the  Pa- 
cific Highlands  have  a  number  peculiar  to  that  region.  Among 
them  are  the  grizzly  bear,  the  big-horn,  or  mountain  sheep,  and 
the  prong-horned  antelope,  the  only  kind  found  on  this  conti- 
nent. The  Columbia  and  other  streams  are  noted  for  their 
salmon.  There  are  180  varieties  of  edible  fish  in  the  waters  of 
the  Pacific  coast.  In  the  sterile  regions  where  the  sage  brush 
grows  one  meets  with  the  sage  cock,  or  the  ' '  Cock  of  the  Plains," 
a  species  of  grouse,  and  the  jack  rabbit. 

In  the  region  of  the  Colorado,  where  the  true  canon  country  is  reached  and  the 
grasses  and  flowers  give  place  to  sage,  to  cacti,  and  bare  rock,  the  game  changes, 
the  deer  and  elk  give  pUice  to  the  coyote,  rattlesnake,  and  centipede.  Major 
Powell  says:  '  'Among  the  buttes  on  the  lower  terraces  rattlesnakes  crawl,  lizards 
glide  over  the  rocks,  tarantulas  stagger  about  and  red  ants  build  their  play- 
house mountains.  Sometimes  rabbits  are  seen  and  wolves  prowl  in  their  quest, 
but  the  desert  has  no  bird  of  sweet  song  and  no  beast  of  noble  mien." 

The  eastern  slopes  of  the  liocky  Mountains  forming  the  Great  Plains  were 
once  the  feeding  ground  of  that  noblest  of  American  animals,  the  bison.  It  is 
but  a  few  years  since  millions  of  these  creatures  were  seen  by  the  traveler,  and 
wagon  trains  crossing  the  plains  were  sometimes  delayed  for  hours,  waiting  for 
herds  to  sweep  past.  The  animals  were  so  numerous  as,  occasionally,  to  dam 
large  streams  at  their  fording  places. 

Hunters  from  all  parts  of  our  own  country,  and  even  from  Europe,  pursued 
the  bison,  slaughtering  thousands  for  mere  sport,  and  it  is  now  nearly  or  quite 
extinct.  The  feeding  grounds  of  the  bison  are  becoming  the  great  pasture  region 
of  the  continent.  Herds  of  cattle,  and  flocks  of  sheep,  each  numbering  hundreds, 
or  perhaps  thousands,  now  range  in  the  mountains,  plateaus,  and  valleys  along 
the  slopes  and  on  the  bordering  plains  from  Texas  to  Canada. 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— NOETH  AMEEICA— ANIMAL  LIFE. 


55 


The  wild  ani- 
mals of  the  tem- 
perate regions  of 
Mexico  are  similar 
to  those  further 
north.     One  hears 
the  bark  of  the  wolf 
and  the  coyote  on 
the  plains.     Herds 
of  cattle,  droves  o 
horses,   and  flocks 
of  sheep  are  seen. 
A  great  variety  of 
brilliant  colored  parrots 
and  humming  birds  are 
found  in  the  low,  hot  re- 
gions near  the  coast.     The  puma,  or  American 
lion,  the  jaguar,  and  the  ocelot  are  the  largest 
flesh-eating  animals.     Noxious  insects,  like  the  ta- 
rantula and  the  scorpion,  are  common.    The  cochi- 
neal insect  is  an  important  article  of  commerce. 

This  tiny  creature  feeds  on  a  species  of  cactus  resembling 
the  prickly  pear.  It  is  so  small  that  70,000  of  them  are  cal- 
culated to  make  hut  a  pound,  when  prepared  for  sale.  The 
insects  are  gathered  by  brushing  them  from  the  plant  by  means 
of  a  soft  brush  like  the  tail  of  a  squirrel.  They  are  killed  by 
scalding  or  by  heating  in  ovens.  Cochineal  is  used  for  dyein" 
scarlet  and  cnmson.  ° 

The  cochineal  plant  was  cultivated  by  the  Mexicans  hun- 
dreds of  years  l)efore  the  country  was  known  to  Europeans. 
It  is  now  grown  in  the  West  Indies,  in  Peru,  and  in  the  Canary 
Islands. 

From  the  Great  Plains  eastward  to  the  Atlantic 
countless  numbers  of  horned  cattle,  horses,  sheep, 
and  swine  have  taken  the  place  of  the  larger  game 
animals,  which  are  now  seldom  seen  except  in  un- 
settled forest  regions. 


AJsiftiALS  ui-   &ULIH  AMKBICA, 


56 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— SOUTH  AMERICA— ANIMAL  LIFE. 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 

(Animal  Life.) 

South  America  has  comparatively  few  animals  in  common 
with  other  continents.  No  ox,  horse,  sheep,  or  goat  is  a  native 
of  the  continent.  The  wild  cattle  and  horses,  now  found  in  vast 
numbers  on  its  treeless  plains,  were  first  introduced  by  Euro- 
peans. It  is  especially  rich  in  birds,  some  of  which  are  of  large 
size,  and  many  are  of  beautiful  plumage.  Reptiles  are  numer- 
ous, and  insect  life  is  immensely  varied  and  abundant.  Its  most 
formidable  beasts  of  prey  are  the  jaguar,  or  South  American 
tiger,  which  is  found  almost  everywhere,  and  the  puma,  or  lion, 
a  much  smaller  beast  than  the  lion  of  Africa. 

Visiting  the  regions  of  the  Orinoco  and  of  the  llanos  when 
the  vegetation  is  green,  we  see  millions  of  cattle  feeding  on  the 
nutritious  herbage.  Prodigious  numbera  of  birds  have  migrated 
hither  from  all  quarters.  Cranes,  herons,  storks,  and  ibises,  of 
various  sizes  and  colors,  are  sometimes  seen  in  colonies  extend- 
ing for  miles.  Some  of  these  birds  are  snow-white,  some  a  deli- 
cate blue,  others  gray  or  pink,  and  many  a  brilliant  scarlet. 
One  kind  of  crane  is  called  the  soldier,  from  its  erect  bearing 
and  martial  air. 

"  The  pools  are  the  resort  of  myriads  of  ducks,  which,  when  disturbed,  rise 
in  such  numbers  as  to  darken  the  sun.  During  the  moulting  season,  when  the 
ducks  are  unable  to  fly,  the  people  of  the  country  are  said  to  visit  the  lagoons 
and  drive  home  all  the  wild  ducks  they  desire  for  food." 

The  marshes  harbor  the  anaconda,  an  enormous  water-snake,  and  the  woods, 
the  boa-constrictor.  These  snakes  cause  havoc  among  the  herds  of  the  llano 
farmers.  Calves  and  colts  straying  near  the  pools  fall  an  easy  prey  to  such 
monsters.  Alligators  swarm  in  the  rivers,  and  venomous  serpents  lie  concsaled 
in  meadows  and  thickets. 

Besides  delicious  turtles  and  edible  fish,  the  waters  contain  many  strange 
creatures.  The  sting-ray  has  a  long  spine  near  the  end  of  its  tail  which  may 
pierce  the  foot  of  the  bather;  the  caribe  resembles  a  goldfish  in  form,  and  is 
armed  with  three-edged,  saw-like  teeth,  with  which  it  tears  the  wounds  of 
cattle  that  venture  into  the  streams.  It  is  the  pest  of  Venezuelean  rivers.  The 
electrical  eel  abounds  in  the  slimy  bottoms  of  still  pools,  and  stuns  horses  that 
come  to  quench  their  thirst. 

In  the  dry  season,  when  the  vegetation  on  the  llanos  is  dead,  all  this  is 
changed.  The  horses  and  cattle  have  gone  to  the  mountain  slopes,  where  the 
pastures  are  green,  the  birds  have  flown,  and  the  reptiles  lie  buried  in  the  mud. 
All  await  the  return  of  the  sun,  and  with  it  the  rain. 

In  the  densest  forests  of  the  Amazon,  the  number  of  indi- 
vidual animals  is  not  so  great  as  in  the  more  open  regions. 
They  are  numerous  only  in  favored  spots.  Large  tracts  seem 
almost  untenanted,  while  others  swarm  with  life.  Travelers 
speak  of  the  awful  stillness  and  somber  shade  of  these  prime- 
val woodlands. 

"  At  times  there  echoes  in  the  midst  of  the  deep  silence  a  sudden  shriek  of 
anguish  or  alarm,  for  a  moment  arresting  the  beating  of  the  heart.  It  is  the 
cry  of  some  luckless  herbivorous  creature  that  has  unexpectedly  fallen  a  prey 
to  some  member  of  the  feline  order,  or  become  entangled  in  the  coils  of  a  lx)a- 
constrictor.  Morning  and  evening  the  numerous  apes  of  the  howler  tribe  set 
up  a  horrible  din,  increasing  tenfold  the  inhospitable  character  of  the  forest." 

All  the  numerous  species  of  monkeys  are  climbers,  and,  with 
one  exception,  none  of  them  are  ever  seen  on  the  ground.  They 
are  born  to  play,  eat,  and  sleep  in  the  tree-tops.  Lizards  and 
frogs  exist  in  great  variety,  and  many  of  them  are  climbers.  In 
places,  as  in  the  Gran  Chaco,  brilliant  parrots,  in  incredible 
numbers,  keep  up  their  incessant  clatter.  More  than  400  varie- 
ties of  humming  birds  of  every  hue  dart  from  flower  to  flower 
on  the  tropical  forest  slopes  of  the  Andes. 

Bates,  the  naturalist,  who  spent  eleven  years  on  the  banks  of  the  Amazon, 
collected  14,712  animals,  8,000  of  which  were  new  to  men  of  science. 

Insects  exist  in  great  abundance.  Fireflies  light  up  the 
forest,  locusts  deafen  the  ear  with  their  shrill  sounds,  and  gay 
butterflies  frequently  fiU  the  air  in  all  directions.    When  there 


is  a  strong  land  breeze  blowing  off  the  coasts  of  Brazil,  clouds 
of  butterflies  and  other  insects  are  sometimes  blown  out  to  sea, 
and  Darwin  tells  us  that  the  seamen  cried  out,  "It  is  snowing 
butterflies."  "So  large  was  the  flock  that  no  space  could  be 
seen,  even  with  a  telescope,  which  was  free  from  them." 

The  pampas  are  noted  feeding  grounds  for  horses  and  horned 
cattle.  The  nandu,  or  South  American  ostrich;  the  little  oven 
bird,  so  called  because  it  builds  its  nest  like  au  oven,  and  other 
small  species  of  birds  are  found.  The  armadillo  is  also  at  home 
in  this  region. 


MONKEYS   AM)   ALI.HiATOK. 

The  llama,  the  alpaca,  and  the  vicugna  dwell  in  the  Andes 

region,  where  flies  the  condor,  and  the  puma  prowls  in  quest 

of  his  prey. 

The  llama,  the  alpaca,  and  the  vicugna  are  three  very  iraportiint  animals  of 
the  same  genus,  dwelling  in  the  higlier  Andes.  The  formr"  is  a  beast  of  bur- 
den, capable  of  working  in  the  thin  mountain  air,  where  the  pressure  is  only 
8  or  10,  instead  of  15,  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Mules  are  used  to  convey 
merchandise  to  an  elevation  of  about  one  mile.  The  packs  are  then  placed  on 
the  llamas  and  carried  over  the  higher  slopes  and  the  great  plateaus. 

The  alpaca  resembles  the  llama,  but  is  rather  smaller.  Its  body  is  covered 
with  long,  fine,  straight  wool,  much  used  iu  manufactures.  These  animals  are 
domesticated  and  kept  in  flocks.  The  vicugna  is  extremely  wild  and  active,  and 
is  considered  untamable.  It  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  aljKica,  and  its  fine 
hair  is  more  valuable.     It  is  obtained  by  hunting  and  slaughtering  the  animal. 

Several  varieties  of  turtles  are  very  abundant  on  the  Orinoco  and  the  Ama^ 
zon.  Early  in  the  month  of  March  they  assemble  on  the  few  islands  where 
they  breed,  when  thousands  are  to  be  seen  ranged  iu  lines  along  the  shores. 
The  animal  digs  a  hole  three  feet  in  diameter  and  two  in  breadth  with  its  hind 
feet,  which  are  very  long  and  furnished  vrith  crooked  claws.  The  laying  of  the 
eggs  begins  soon  after  sunset,  and  is  continued  throughout  the  night.  One  tor- 
toise lays  from  100  to  116  eggs.  The  egg  ground  is  divided  into  portions,  and 
the  natives  remove  the  earth-covering  with  their  hands,  and  carry  the  eggs  in 
baskets  to  the  camp. 


LIFE  O'S   THE  GLOBE— EUROPE— ANIMAL  LIFE. 


■•-.%+^ 


fur-bearing  are  the  most  important  in  tiie 
north.      Bears,    wolves,   several  kinds   of 
deer,  and  the  wild  boar  are  still  found  in 
the  great  forests  of  the  central  countries. 
The  chamois  is  the  most  noted  and 
beautiful  animal  of  the  Alps.     Here,  too,  are  the  eagle  and 
the  lammergeyer,  or  lamb-killer.    Barbary  apes  are  found  in 
Spain.    The  reptiles  of  Europe  are  small  and  generally  harm- 
less.   The  birds  do  not  compare  with  those  of  South  America 
in  brilliancy  of  plumage,  but  there  are  many  sweet  singers 
to  make  glad  the  homes  of  rich  and  poor. 

The  nightingale,  or  "night  singer"  of  the  Saxons,  the  finest  of  European 
song-birds.  Is  not  larger  than  the  bluebird  of  America,  and  is  very 
plain  in  appearance.      Its  delightful  song  is  heard  chiefly  in 
y;    the  still  nights  of  May  and  June,  but  it  also  sings  during  the 
p       day.    Though  so  small  a  bird  its  voice  may  be  heard 
a  mile.   ' '  They  are  abundant  iu  the  pleasure  grountls 
around  London,  in  the  parks  and  gardens  of  Paris, 
and  Florence  rings  with  them  during  the  vocal  sea^ 
son."     The  bird  spends  its  winter  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  but  migrates  as  far  north 
as  Sweden,  in  April  or  May. 

Cod,  herring,  and  salmon  abound  in 
the  northern  coast  waters;  and  the  sar- 
dine, the  anchovy,  and  the  tunny  are 
found  iu  the  Mediterranean. 


Questions. — Of  the  animals  represented,  how  many  are  useful  to  man? 
Which  one  is  most  useful?  Is  the  African  elephant  used  as  a  beast  of  burden? 
In  what  countries  is  the  camel  of  most  service?  For  what  is  the  eider  duck 
valued?  About  which  of  these  animals  has  Sir  Walter  Scott  written?  What 
is  the  meaning  of  the  word  lammergeyer?    What  bird  of  our  own  country 


resembles  the  lammergeyer?  In  what  way  has  the  artist  shown  the  character 
of  the  chamois?  Which  of  the  animals  are  carnivorous?  Which  are  herbiv- 
orous? How  many  are  found  on  more  than  one  continent?  How  many  are 
peculiar  to  Africa?  To  Asia?  To  Europe?  Why  did  the  artist  plaice  the  lion 
in  that  position?    What  use  may  the  man  have  for  his  spear? 


68 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— ASIA— AFEIC A— ANIMAL  LIFE. 


ASIA. 

(Animal  Life.) 

Most  of  our  domestic  animals  had  their  native  home  in  Asia. 
From  that  land  came  the  cow,  the  horse,  the  ass,  the  goat,  the 
sheep,  the  pig,  the  cat,  the  peacock,  and  the  barn-fowl.  Cattle, 
horses,  asses,  and  goats  ai  e  found  on  the  steppes  and  vast  pla- 
teaus, wherever  there  is  sufficient  herbage.  Flocks  and  herds 
form  the  chief  wealth  of  all  Middle  Asia.  The  yak  and  the 
cashmere  goat  are  sgen  on  the  table-lands  of  Thibet. 

Goats  inhabit  most  p.arts  of  tlie  world,  and  live  on  scanty  herbage  where 
other  domestic  animals  could  scarcely  lind  a  footinji;.  Their  flesh  and  milk  are 
wholesome  food;  their  undressed  skins  furnish  warm  clothing  for  a  large  part 
of  tlie  mountain  shepherds  and  peasiiiits  of  Europe  and  temperate  Asia.  Many 
an  infant  in  those  lands  is  nursed  by  a  goat.  Kid  gloves  and  the  finest  morocco 
shoes  are  made  from  goat  skins.  The  most  expensive  shawls,  costing  from  $500 
to  $1,000,  are  made  from  the  hair  of  the  cashmere  goat. 

Skins  of  the  goat  with  the  hair  on  form  the  knapsack  of  the  soldier,  the  wig 
of  the  lawyer,  the  bishop,  and  the  judge.  The  horns  of  the  goat  make  excel- 
lent knife-handles,  and  the  tallow  furnishes  candles  for  many  a  cottage  home. 
Their  salted  and  dried  hams  make  tlie  best  "rock  venison,"  and  superior  cheese 
from  goat's  milk  is  the  boast  of  many  a  mountain  dairy. 

The  yak,  or  "grunting  ox,"  is  extensively  bred  in  Thibet  and  the  adjacent 
parts  of  Central  Asia,  and  is  very  useful  to  the  inhabitants  of  those  elevated 
regions.  There  are  several  breed.s,  as  the  "plow  yak,"  the  "noble  yak,"  and 
"wild  yak."  Tlie  color  of  the  animal  is  black,  the  back  and  tail  often  white, 
the  hair  is  thick  and  long,  and  the  tail  long,  silky,  and  beautiful.  The  horns 
are  like  those  of  a  common  ox.  The  legs  are  short,  but  the  animal  is  as  tall 
as  a  large  ox.  Over  his  shoulder  hangs  a  great  mass  of  hair,  which  has  the 
appearance  of  a  hump.  The  beautiful  tails  are  dyed  red  and  used  for  military 
standards  and  to  ornament  the  caps  of  the  Chinese.  It  is  a  sure-footed  beast, 
and  bears  ita  rider  over  dangerous  passes  and  along  the  brink  of  yawning  gulfs. 
Ita  flesh  is  Siiid  to  be  superior  to  venison. 

The  largest  wild  animals  inhabit  the  forests  south  of  the 
Himalayas.  In  this  region  the  elephant  is  used  as  a  beast  of 
burden.  There  are  the  Bengal  tiger,  a  terribly  ferocious  beast, 
the  great  yellow  lion,  the  rhinoceros,  the  hyena,  the  orang- 
outang, crocodile,  and  pythons  of  monstrous  length,  and  many 
species  of  poisonous  snakes.     Monkeys  and  parrots  abound. 

In  the  cold  north  are  birds  and  fur-bearing  animals  like 
those  in  Europe  and  North  America;  but  the  sable,  the  civet, 
marten,  blue  and  silver  fox,  and  other  creatures,  highly  valued 
for  their  fur,  are  rapidly  disappearing  before  Siberian  hunters 
and  trappers. 

AFRICA 

(Animal  Life.) 

In  the  Atlas  region  on  the  north  are  found  the  domestic 
animals,  including  the  camel  and  the  dromedary.  Among  the 
larger  wild  animals  are  the  graceful  gazelle  and  the  antelope. 
The  eagle  circles  round  the  mountain  peaks;  the  swallow 
skims  through  the  air,  fattening  on  the  swarms  of  musquitoes; 
the  cuckoo's  note  is  heard;  the  stork,  from  Europe,  spends  the 
winter  there,  building  its  nest  on  the  terraces  of  houses,  the 
belfries  of  churches,  or  in  the  minarets  of  the  mosques,  and 
dining  on  grasshoppers,  frogs,  lizards,  and  snakes.  The  boom 
of  the  heron  is  heard  in  the  swamps,  the  swan  sits  gracefully 
on  the  water,  and  the  grebe,  whose  costly  satin  feathers  are 
used  for  trimming  ladies'  dresses  and  for  muffs,  dives  in  the 
waters  of  lakes  and  bays. 

The  camel  is  the  beast  of  the  Great  Desert. 

Further  south,  in  tropical  Africa,  the  rhinoceros  is  found  in 
the  jungles,  the  hippopotamus  in  the  shallow  lakes,  pools,  and 
streams,  on  whose  banks  grows  the  coarse  food  he  eats.  The 
elephant  and  the  giraffe  delight  in  the  more  open  forests.  In 
the  deep  shade  dwell  the  monkey,  the  chimpanzee  and  the  man- 
like gorilla,  and  numberless  parrots  and  other  bright-colored, 

noisy  bl  rdS.  «^  ,^,^,^^  having  one  hump. 


On  the  great  plains  and  in  the  scrub  region  extending  far 
to  the  south  are  the  striped  zebra  and  the  quagga,  and  no  less 
than  sixty  species  of  antelope,  some  of  them  of  great  size  and 
beauty.  The  antelope  is  seen  in  herds,  sometimes  numbering 
100,000.  The  buffalo  is  found  in  South  Africa,  but  it  has 
never  been  tamed  and  used  as  a  beast  of  burden  as  in  some 
parts  of  the  Old  World.  The  crocodile  is  seen  in  all  the 
large  rivei'S  and  lakes  of  the  continent. 


HUNTINO  THE  GORIILA. 

The  ostrich  is  the  most  remarkable  bird.  It  delights  to 
dwell  in  the  regions  bordering  the  great  deserts,  but  it  has  been 
tamed,  and  "ostrich  farming"  is  now  an  important  industry 
in  South  Africa. 

The  ostrich  is  six  to  eight  feet  high.  Its  feet  consist  of  two  toes ;  the  head 
and  neck  are  nearly  naked;  the  plumage  is  loose,  and  the  quill  feathers  of  the 
wings  and  tail  are  remarkable  for  their  length.  These  are  the  well-known 
ostrich  featliers  which  are  so  highly  prized  as  ornaments.  Ostriches  live  in 
small  flocks  and  feed  upon  grass,  grain  and  the  tops  of  plants. 

The  nest  is  a  hole  scrajied  in  the  ground,  in  which  several  hens  lay  their  eggs, 
the  points  of  the  eggs  being  turned  downward.  During  the  day  the  hens  tiike 
turns  in  sitting,  but  the  stronger  male  bird  goes  on  the  nest  at  night,  to  pro- 
tect the  eggs  or  young  from  prowling  jackalls.  cats,  or  other  enemies.  Each 
egg  weighs  about  three  pounds,  and  they  are  considered  very  palatable  food. 
The  distant  cry  of  the  ostrich  is  often  mistaken  for  the  roar  of  the  lion.  It 
runs  more  rapidly  than  the  swiftest  horse,  and  its  speed  is  lessened  but  little 
with  a  man  on  its  back.* 

The  social  weaver  birds  are  found  in  large  numbers  in 
Southern  Africa,  north  of  the  Orange  Eiver.  Hundreds  unite 
in  building  a  roof  or  thatch  of  grass,  under  which  they  con- 
struct a  huge  nest  with  a  compartment  for  every  bird.  There 
are  many  entrances,  each  forming  a  regular  street,  with  nests 
on  both  sides.  The  nest  is  usually  built  in  the  top  of  a  tall 
tree,  but,  where  trees  are  not  found,  shrubs  are  sometimes 
selected. 

Among  numerous  insects,  termites,  a  kind  of  ant,  which 
build  tall,  cone-like  houses,  often  mistaken  for  the  huts  of  na- 
tives, are  the  most  remairkable.  They  boldly  attack  almost 
every  living  creature,  and  destroy  everything  except  stones  and 
metals.  Locusts  fly  in  immense  swarms,  and  no  green  thing  is 
left  on  a  field  where  they  light.  They  are  used  as  food  by 
many  tribes,  and  with  the  wild  honey,  which  is  abundant  in 
some  parts  of  the  continent,  form  no  mean  diet. 

•  Consult  Johnson's  Natural  History. 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— AUSTRALIA— THE  SEA— ANIMAL  LIFE. 


59 


AUSTRALIA. 


We  found 
Australia 
very  pecu- 
liar in  its 
vegetable 
life,  and  we 
shall  find  it  even 
more  peculiar  in 
the  character  of 
its  animals.     It  has  no 


"The  great  red  kangaroo  is  five  feet  high  and  sometimes  weighs  200  pounds.     They 
are  hunted  with  dogs  trained  for  the  pur])Ose,  and  run  very  swiftly.    When  brought  to 
bay  they  will  sit  upright  against  the  trunk  of  a  tree  and  often  rip  open  a  dog  with  the  • 
large  nail  of  the  middle  toe." 

There  are  twenty-three  varieties  of  hats,  of  which  one  called  the 
"flying  fox,"  or  fruit-eating  bat,  is  the  largest  and  most  remarkable.  , 
Their  wings  are  several  feet  in  extent. 

They  pass  the  day  suspended  by  the  hind  feet,  from  branches  in  the  thick  shade,  or  in  the 
crevices  of  rocks,  but  leave  their  abodes  of  gloom  during  the  still  night,  while  the  inhabitants 
are  asleep,  and  devour  large  quantities  of  fruit  in  gardens  and  fields. 

There  are  several  species  of  "flying  opossum,"  beautiful  creatures,  whose  skins  are  used 
rugs.    They  have  a  membrane  joining  the  fore  and  hind  leg,  which  they  spread  as  they  fly,  the  same 
our  flying  squirrels.     Some  varieties  are  nearly  three  feet  in  length  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  and  others 
very  small. 

No  other  temperate  climate  of  the  world  equals  Australia  in  the  variety  of 
form,  the  beauty  of  plumage,  and  the  peculiar  habits  of  its  birds.  Its  parrots  and 
cockatoos  are  numerous,  and  more  beautiful  than  those  of  most  tropical  countries. 

It  has  its  honeysuckers,  that  live  on  the  sweeta  of  innumerable  flowers;  and  bower  birds,  that  con- 
struct bowers  of  twigs  and  branches,  and  decorate  them  with  colored  feathers,  lx)nes,  and  shells.  Then 
there  is  the  jungle-fowl,  or  mound-builder,  which  gathers  an  immense  heap  of  sticks  and  other 
vegetable  matter,  on  which  her  eggs  are  laid.  Sand  is  then  piled  over  them,  and  they  arc  left 
to  hatch  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  Some  of  the  mounds  are  15  feet  high  and  60  feet  in  circum- 
ference. 

Song-birds  are  abundant,  and  their  notes  equal  those  of  our  favorites. 
The  wonderful  whistler,  the  musical  magpie,  or  piping  crow,  gives  the 
most  charming  music.  Australia  is  said  to  have  630  distinct  species  of 
birds,  while  North  America,  lying  in  three  zones,  has  but  720,  and  Europe 
but  500. 

Of  lizards  there  are  140  varieties,  and  some  70  varieties  of  snakes,  many 
of  which  are  venomous.  There  are  300  kinds  of  land  shells,  most  of  which 
are  of  curious  shape  or  elegantly  colored. 

THE  SEA. 

(Animal  Life.) 


native  oxen,  deer,  or  ante- 
lopes; no  cats,  wolves,  or  bears;  no  elephants,  rhi- 
noceroses, or  pigs;  no  apes  or  monkeys;  no  weasels, 
hedgehogs,  squirrels,  or  porcupines.  The  different 
domestic  animals  of  the  Temperate  Zone  are  now 
widely  introduced.  Many  cattle  and  millions  of  sheep 
graze  on  the  hills  and  plains. 

The  marsupial,  or  pouch-bearing,  animals  are  nu- 
merous. Some  are  as  tall  as  a  man,  and  others  nearly 
or  quite  as  small  as  a  rat.  The  largest  often  weigh  as 
much  as  a  sheep.  They  are  born  very  feeble,  and  are 
at  once  placed  in  a  pouch  of  loose  skin  with  which  the 
mother  is  provided.  The  kangaroos  are  the  most  re- 
markable of  the  marsupials.  Of  these  there  are  more 
than  forty  small,  and  nine  large  species. 


The  sea  is  crowded  with  living  creatures,  some  of  which  are  far  larger 
than  any  animals  on  land.  Whales  have  been  caught  that  weighed  nearly 
200  tons.  Scoresby  saw  a  rorqual  whale  in  the  polar  seas  which  measured 
120  feet  in  length,  and  not  less  than  60  feet  in  girth.  Animals  of  great 
.size,  such  as  walruses,  sea-cows,  dolphins,  and  sharks,  are  very  numerous, 
and  some  of  these  monsters  are  found  in  schools  of  thousands. 

But  it  is  the  multitude  of  creatures  that  throng  the  deep,  rather  than 
their  size,  that  fills  us  with  the  greatest  surprise. 

"The  sounds  and  seas,  each  creek  and  bay, 
With  fry  innumerable  swarm,  and  shoals 
Of  fish  that  with  their  fins  and  shining  scales 
Glide  under  the  green  wave,  in  sculls  that  oft 
Bank  the  mid  sea;  part  single  or  with  mate 
Graze  the  sea^weed,  their  pasture,  and  through  groves 
Of  coral  stray;  or  sporting  with  quick  glance, 


60 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— THE  SEA— ANIMAL  LIFE. 


Show  to  the  sun  their  waved  coats  dropped  with  gold; 
Or,  in  their  pearly  shells,  at  ease,  attend 
Moist  nutriment;  or  under  rocks  their  food 
In  jointed  armor  watch;  on  smooth,  the  seal 
And  bended  dolphins  play;  part  huge  of  bulk, 
Wallowing  unwieldy,  enormous  in  their  gait, 
Tempest  the  ocean." 

Schools  of  herring,  mackerel,  and  other  food  fishes,  number- 
ing millions  upon  millions,  gather  in  the  cool  waters  ofif  many 
coasts,  to  become  the  prey  of  thousands  of  men,  who  garner 
the  harvests  of  the  deep.  But  man  is  not  the  worst  enemy  of 
these  animals. 

"The  sea  is  an  immense  field  of  carnage,  where  the  creatures  which  are 
born  in  infinite  myriads,  serve  also  as  food  to  millions  and  tens  of  millions  of 
furious  devourers.  When  the  herrings  penetrate  into  the  North  Sea,  it  seems 
as  if  an  immense  island  had  risen,  and  that  a  continent  was  about  to  emerge; 
but  this  island  or  continent  of  fishes  is  beset  and  eaten  on  all  sides. 

"Each  detachment  of  the  mighty  army,  about  30  miles  long,  and  from 
6  to  6  broad,  is  accompanied  by  legions  of  great  sea  animals,  which  press 
in  bands  around  the  serried  columns,  and  never  cease  swallowing  herrings 
by  hundreds.  Birds,  flying  in  clouds  above  the  scene  of  the  immense  slaughter, 
plunge  down  on  all  sides  to  select  their  victims." — Redus. 

Some  parts  of  the  sea  are  so  filled  with  living  creatures 
that  its  color  is  changed  by  them.  Off  the  coast  of  South 
America,  Darwin  saw  large  tracts,  colored  yellow,  bright  red, 
and  chocolate,  by  minute  creatures,  some  of  them  so  tiny  that 
a  small  drop  of  water,  when  viewed  by  the  microscope,  was 
seen  to  contain  many  hundreds.  E"orth  of  the  Canaries,  in 
1856,  a  traveler  saw  a  swarm  of  medusfe  covering  a  space 
forty-five  miles  wide. 

Off  the  headlands  of  Granada,  these  animals  at  times  so 
crowd  the  surface  of  the  sea  as  to  color  it  yellow  for  many 
miles  from  the  coast.  Seamen  near  the  coast  of  Greenland 
find  bands  of  water,  hundreds  of  miles  in  area,  colored  brown, 
or  olive-green.  Navigators  in  the  Indian  Ocean  have  found 
tracts  as  white  as  milk,  each  drop  an  animated  world,  or,  as 
the  Peruvians  say,  "living  water." 

ThemedusMB  bear  the  popular  names,  "jelly  fishes,"  "sea  blubbers,"  and 
sea  nettles.  They  are  not  what  are  commonly  known  as  fish,  but  minute 
creivtnres  that  throng  the  sea  from  the  Equator  to  the  poles.  Some  can  be 
seen  only  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  while  others  form  jelly-like  masses  that 
float  on  the  waves. 

Many  species  of  medusa;  shine  with  phosphorescent  light.  Some  appear  in 
the  depth  like  balls  of  fire,  or  like  ribbons  of  fiame  moving  througli  the  water. 
Others  sparkle  like  diamonds  on  the  rocks  and  sea  weed;  some  float  in  shoals, 
di.splaying  the  lovely  hues  of  the  rainbow;  while  others,  like  orbs  of  silver, 
glitter  as  they  float  on  the  rolling  current.  As  the  darkness  comes  on,  the 
voyager  sees  sheets  of  yellow  or  greenish  light  trembling  on  the  water;  the 
waves  tipped  with  flame;  whirlpools  of  sparks  at  the  vessel's  prow;  waves  of 
flame  on  either  side,  and  a  long  river  of  fire  in  the  track  of  the  ship.  This  is 
called  phosphorescence  of  the  sea. 


In  the  port  of  Havana  the  least  object  that  agitates  the  surface  of  the  water 
is  said  to  appear  like  a  point  of  flame,  and  raises  around  it  a  series  of  luminous 
wavelets.  Rowboats  sailing  over  the  waters  leave  behind  them  the  trace  of 
a  fiery  dragon  with  extended  paws.  In  the  Persian  Gulf  the  waves  are  often 
so  luminous  during  the  night  that  the  Arabs  attribute  the  reflections  to  infernal 
fixes  shining  through  the  rocks  beneath. 

Animals  of  the  sea  have  their  zones  as  well  as  those  of  the  land.  In  the 
polar  seas,  stretching  as  far  south  as  Labrador,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  North 
America,  and  including  Behring  Sea  on  the  west,  the  species  of  animals  are  not 
so  numerous  as  in  the  Torrid  Zone,  but  the  number  of  individuals  of  any 
species  is  usually  very  great. 

When  the  ice  of  the  rivers  flowing  into  the  polar  ocean  breaks  up  in  the 
spring,  some  varieties  of  flsh  from  the  sea  fairly  crowd  the  waters.  Of  the 
animals  inhabiting  this  region  the  seal,  the  walrus,  and  the  whale  are  most 
useful,  furnishing  fur,  oil,  ivory,  and  whalebone. 

In  the  Cold  Temperate  Zone,  following,  to  some  extent,  the 
Gulf  Stream  of  the  Atlantic,  are  found  a  great  abundance  of 
cod,  herring,  mackerel,  and  other  food  fishes.  In  this  belt  are 
the  coast  waters  of  New  England,  Canada,  the  Grand  Banks  of 
Newfoundland,  Iceland,  the  British  Isles,  and  the  coast  of  Nor- 
way, all  swarming  with  excellent  fish.  The  same  fish  belt 
touches  the  northern  portion  of  our  western  coast  from  Cali- 
fornia to  Alaska  and  the  Japan  Islands,  and  Asia  in  the  higher 
latitudes. 

In  the  Torrid  and  the  Warm  Temperate  Zones  crossing  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific,  and  including  the  whole  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  the  marine  animals  are  the  most  varied  in  form  and 
brilliant  in  color.  The  waters  teem  with  living  creatures. 
Here  corals  construct  their  myriad  islands,  and  moUusks,  or 
shell  fish,  appear  in  countless  forms. 

In  the  Southern  Hemisphere  the  animals  of  the  sea  change 
with  the  zones,  but  less  is  known  of  that  portion  of  the  globe. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  we  can  bound  the  different  animal  zones  of 
the  sea  by  parallels  of  latitude.  Some  creatures  live  in  water  that  is  very  cold, 
others  delight  in  that  which  is  warm,  and  others  still,  in  water  of  moderate 
temperature. 

A  cold  current,  as  that  from  Greenland,  may  be  followed  far  to  the  south 
by  whales,  walruses,  or  seals,  whose  best  home  is  in  the  colder  regions;  and  a 
warm  current,  as  tlie  Gulf  Stream,  may  carry  some  of  the  life  of  the  tropics  to 
the  north.  Then,  too,  animals  must  live  where  their  food  is  abundant,  and  we 
do  not  find  them  wandering  at  will  over  all  parts  of  the  sea,  but  confined  to 
their  feeding  grounds  the  same  as  animals  on  land. 

It  is  probable  that  animal  life,  though  most  abundant  near 
the  surface,  exists  at  all  depths  in  the  ocean.  Some  creatures 
are  adapted  to  deep  and  others  to  shoal  water.  Certain  species 
of  fish  are  known  to  live  at  a  depth  of  about  three  miles.  Deep- 
sea  fishes  are  usually  of  a  very  dark  or  dull  color,  and  some  of 
them  are  sightless,  possessing  mere  rudimentary  eyes.  They 
are  born  to  dwell  where  the  sun's  rays  never  penetrate. 


LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE  — MANKIND. 


61 


MANKIND. 

The  human  family  is  divided  into  several  races.  The  divi- 
sion is  based  on  differences  in  color,  features,  industrial  habits, 
mental  and  moral  qualities,  and  social  institutions. 

The  five  races  recognized  by  most  writers  are  the  Caucasian, 
or  white,  the  Mongolian,  or  yellow,  the  Negro,  or  black,  the 
Indian,  or  red,  and  the  Malay,  or  brown.  Each  race  is  sub- 
divided into  groups,  families,  or  tribes,  differing  from  one  an- 
other somewhat,  but  having  the  same  general  characteristics  as 
the  race  to  which  they  belong. 

The  Caucasian  race  takes  its  name  from  the  Caucasus  Moun- 
tains, near  which  many  suppose  it  to  have  originated.  The 
skin  is  light,  the  skull  large,  the  face  oval,  the  forehead  ex- 
panded, the  chin  full,  and  the  teeth  vertical. 

The  Mongolians  have  a  yellow  complexion,  broad  face,  low, 
retreating  forehead,  oblique  eyes,  and  dark,  straight  hair.  The 
Chinese  and  Japanese  are  the  finest  examples  of  this  race. 


In  their  aative  country,  the  negroes  are  mostly  barharians;  but  in  America 
they  have  shown  themselves  capable  of  great  progress. 

The  Malays  have  made  little  advance  in  civilization.  Many  of  them  have 
not  risen  above  the  lowest  stage  of  savage  life;  but  a  few  have  learned  to  write, 
and  have  written  laws.     They  take  naturally  to  the  sea,  and  often  are  pirates. 

The  Indians  of  North  America  are  savages;  those  of  South  America  had 
made,  in  some  instances,  considerable  progress  in  civilization  when  the  conti- 
nent was  discovered. 

Man  in  the  Different  Zones.— But  few  tribes  of  men  dwell 
in  the  awful  solitudes  within  and  bordering  upon  the  Frigid 
Zone.  In  this  belt,  including  a  portion  of  three  continents, 
the  constantly  frozen  ground  yields  but  few  plants  suitable 
for  food,  and  man  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  bounty  of 
the  sea.  His  hut  of  ice  or  rough  stone  is  built  near  the  coast, 
and  we  see  him  entering  it  on  "all-fours,"  creeping  along  a 
dark  passage.  He  has  neither  wood  nor  coal  for  grate  or 
hearth,  and  warms  himself  by  a  lamp  placed  near  the  center 
of  his  hut. 


SPECIMENS  OF  THE  FIVE  CLASSES  OF  MANKIND. 

The  Negro  race  is  black  or  dark  brown,  with  woolly  hair, 
low  forehead,  thick  lips,  flat  nose,  and  prominent  cheek  bones. 

The  Indian  race  is  of  a  copper  color,  with  coarse,  straight, 
black  hair,  high  cheek  bones,  aquiline  nose,  large  mouth,  and 
lean,  muscular  frame. 

The  Malay  race  is  brown,  with  black  hair,  low  forehead, 
short,  broad  nose,  and  projecting  jaws. 

The  Caucasian  and  Mongolian  races  are  supposed  to  be 
nearly  equal,  each  comprising  about  two-fifths  of  mankind. 
The  Negro  race  includes  about  one-seventh,  the  Indian,  about 
one-hundredth,  and  the  Malay,  about  one  twenty-fifth  of  the 
entire  human  family  which  numbers  nearly  1,440,000,000. 

In  all  historical  ages  the  Caucasian  has  been  the  leading  race  of  the  world. 
From  it  have  sprung  great  scholars,  inventors,  and  discoverers.  It  takes  first 
rank  in  governmental,  educational,  and  religious  systems;  and  in  most  things 
that  contribute  to  the  highest  welfare  of  mankind. 

The  Mongolian  ranks  next  to  the  Caucasian.  In  China  and  Japan  it  has 
reached  a  high  state  of  civilization,  and  rapid  progress  is  being  made,  especially 
in  the  latter  country. 


BSQUIMAU.X. 

In  his  leathern  kyak,  or  boat,  he  ventures  among  the  float- 
ing ice  to  spear  a  fish  or  a  seal,  the  latter  furnishing  most 
of  his  food  and  clothing,  as  well  as  oil  for  his  lamp.  The 
dog  shares  his  master's  toil,  drawing  him  over  fields  of  ice 
and  snow.  During  the  long  polar  winter,  the  sun  itself  hides 
its  face  for  a  time,  and  the  Esquimau  gropes  about  in  the  twi- 
light, famine  often  staring  him  in  the  face. 

We  are  told  by  Lieut.  Greely,  and  other  arctic  explorers,  that  the  people 
who  inhabit  these  desolate  regions  are  so  strongly  attached  to  their  native  land 
that  they  sicken  when  obliged  to  leave  it;  that  they  are  loving,  truthful,  and 
generous;  that  the  fomily,  living  together  in  one  little  room,  are  "all  the  world 
to  one  another,"  and  that  a  few  simple  pleasures  fill  their  cup  of  joy. 

In  very  many  portions  of  the  Torrid  Zone  one  has  only  to 

shake  the  branches  of  a  tree,  or  to  pull  roots  from  the  ground, 

in  order  to  supply  himself  with  wholesome  and  delicious  food. 

He  may  tap  some  plant  or  pluck  some  watery  fruit  to  quench 

his  thirst.     He  constructs  a  simple  hut  of  bamboo  stems,  and 

thatches  it  with  palm  leaves  to  shelter  himself  from  sun  and 

rain.     Little  clothing  is  needed. 


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LIFE  ON  THE  GLOBE— MAISTKIND— TEST  QUESTIONS. 


63 


Nature  provides  everything  at  the  proper  time,  and  man 
prefers  to  depend  on  her  bounty  rather  than  use  his  hands  or 
brain.  Forethought  is  unnecessary,  for  no  winter  or  time  of 
scarcity  is  coming.  The  Torrid  Zone  is  the  best  home  of  sav- 
ages, and  millions  of  them  people  the  continents  and  islands  of 
this  belt. 

In  the  Temperate  Zones  there  are  alternations  of  heat  and 
cold;  the  seasons  come  and  go;  the  climate  is  bracing,  and  man 
is  incited  to  constant  activity  and  forethought.  He  needs  food, 
clothing,  and  shelter,  but  must  labor  to  obtain  them.  Nature 
will  supply  all  his  wants,  but  she  compels  him  to  use  his  mind 
and  hand.    Doing  this,  he  ceases  to  be  a  savage. 

Regions  Most  Favorable  to  Progress. — In  the  Frigid 
Zone  life  is  a  long  struggle  with  the  cold;  by  no  effort  can  one 
bring  a  supply  of  food  from  the  ground.  There  can  be  no 
diversity  of  industries,  for  there  is  but  one  way  to  gain  a  liv- 
ing. Ice  closes  the  avenues  of  trade,  and  nothing  is  gained  by 
contact  with  the  world.  Little  progress  can  be  made  in  this 
region  of  slanting  sunbeams. 

In  the  Torrid  Zone  man  is  the  heir  of  luxury.  He  is  sur- 
rounded by  abundance,  and  labor  seems  useless.  He  prefers  to 
take  his  ease,  and  leaves  his  mind  uncultivated,  all  his  powers 
unused.    He  is  too  indolent  to  improve. 

In  the  Temperate  Zones  everything  urges  man  to  "be  up 
and  doing,"  and  he  finds  happiness  and  progress  in  the  exer- 
cise of  all  his  faculties. 

In  these  vast  belts,  including  the  greater  portion  of  the  land  surface  of  the 
globe,  man  is  not,  as  in  the  Frigid  Zone,  confined  to  one  or  two  industries,  or 
modes  of  ' '  getting  on  in  the  world. "  He  may  sow  and  reap  the  varied  har- 
vests of  the  fields;  orchard  fruits  and  vineyard  clusters  may  ripen  under  his 
hand;  bleating  flocks  and  lowing  herds  may  crop  the  green  pastures;  forests 
may  yield  their  lumber,  and  mountains  their  ores;  cunning  shuttles  may  fly, 
hammers  may  beat,  and  sails  may  be  spread  on  lake  and  sea. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  temperate  climates  are 
most  favorable  to  human  progress.  Our  own  country,  most  of 
Canada,  the  countries  of  Europe,  China  and  Japan  in  Asia,  are 
in  the  North  Temperate  Zone.  From  this  zone  went  forth  the 
civilized  people  who  rule  in  Mexico,  South  America,  and  other 
tropical  countries.     Civilization  did  not  have  its  birth  in  the 


realm  of  frost,  nor  in  lands  of  perpetual  summer,  save  in  a  few 
favored  localities.    It  is  the  child  of  that  zone  in  which  we  live. 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Labor. —  Looking  over  the 
world,  we  find  that  there  are  many  industries,  and  that  the  peo- 
ple of  one  section  are  largely  engaged  in  agriculture;  of  another, 
in  manufacturing;  of  a  third,  in  commerce,  and  so  on.  These 
diflferences  in  occupations  are  not  accidental,  but  usually  de- 
pend on  physical  features  or  climatic  conditions.  Some  regions 
are  naturally  adapted  to  grain  raising,  or  fruit  growing;  others 
to  mining,  lumbering,  or  fishing.  As  a  rule,  the  people  of  any 
section  engage  in  those  branches  of  business  which  the  physical 
geography  of  their  section  enables  them  to  pursue  to  the  best 
advantage. 

Queries. — How  many  things  are  required  to  make  a  good  agricultural  coun- 
try? What  is  needed  to  make  a  great  manuiacturing  region  ?  What  branches  of 
business  are  likely  to  be  of  most  importance  in  mountainous  countries?  What 
geographical  advantages  must  a  city  have  in  order  that  it  may  become  great  f  * 

Exercises. —  Point  out  on  the  several  maps  those  regions  yon  think  most 
favorable  to  agriculture;  to  mining;  to  lumbering;  to  manufacturing;  to  fish- 
ing; to  stock  raising;  to  commerce.  In  every  instance  give  reasons  for  your 
conclusions. 

In  a  certain  portion  of  the  North  Temperate  Zone  we  find  a  level  country 
with  a  deep,  rich  soil.  There  is  an  abundance  of  wild  grass,  and  timber  sulfi- 
cient  for  building.  Navigable  rivers  and  lakes  are  also  found.  What,  probably, 
is  a  leading  occupation  of  the  people  who  inhabit  this  region?  Give  a  reason 
for  your  conclusion.     Point  out  such  a  section. 

There  is  a  mountainous  country  with  forests  of  hardwood  and  pine  on  all 
the  slopes.  In  the  mountains  are  found  large  quantities  of  coal  and  iron. 
What  may  be  some  of  the  leading  industries  of  this  country?  Why?  Find 
such  a  section  on  the  map  of  North  America. 

In  a  region  of  plains,  plateaus,  and  mountain  valleys,  there  is  a  moderate 
growth  of  nutritious  grass,  but,  on  the  whole,  very  little  rain.  Streams  course 
the  valleys  and  cut  across  the  plains.  The  winters  are  comparatively  mild, 
and  in  some  parts  the  grass  cures  where  it  stands  and  retains  its  nutritious 
qualities  during  the  cold  months.  For  what  occupation  has  nature  fitted  this 
section?    Point  out  such  a  section. 

In  a  cool  portion  of  the  North  Temperate  Zone  is  a  country  with  rugged 
coasts  and  numberless  inlets.  There  is  little  land  suitable  for  cultivation,  but 
the  waters  swarm  with  cod,  herring,  and  other  fish.  How  may  the  people  of 
this  country  get  a  living  ? 

*  The  benefit  of  exercises  of  this  character  cornea  from  the  thinking  the  pupil  is  required  to 
do.  His  couclusions  are  to  be  reacned  by  making  an  application  of  what  he  has  learned.  In 
deciding  on  the  agricultural  capabilities  of  a  region  he  will  think  of  the  climate,  the  surface,  the 
soil,  as  indicated  by  native  plants;  the  probable  rainfall,  aa  indicated  by  the  streams,  etc.  Other 
points  may  be  decided  in  a  similar  manner. 


TEST  QUESTIONS  AI^D  EXERCISES. 

TUK  FOLLOWmQ  WILL  TEST  THE  PUPIL'S  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOME  OF  THE  PEINCIPLES  EXPLAINED  IN  PEKCEDING  SECTIONS. 


Mathematical  Geography. — ^Why  should  the  sailor  climb  to  the  topmast 
■when  he  wishes  to  see  the  distant  shore?  Why  does  the  sun  rise  earlier  to  us 
than  to  people  living  west  of  us?  On  the  map  or  globe,  find  two  places  in  oj)- 
posite  hemispheres  where  the  clocks  strike  12  M.  at  the  same  instant.  Find 
two  places  whose  difference  in  time  is  one  hour.  Six  hours.  Twelve  hours. 
In  traveling,  I  notice  that  my  watch  is  constantly  losing  time.  In  what  direc- 
tion am  I  journeying?  Where,  on  the  earth,  will  the  sun  be  directly  overhead 
at  noon,  on  the  21st  of  June?  On  the  22d  of  December?  Find  two  points  on 
the  earth's  surface  where  the  sun  rises  but  once  a  year.  How  many  degrees 
are  these  points  apart?  How  many  miles  round  the  earth  on  the  parallel  of 
45°?  In  what  way  does  the  curvature  of  the  earth's  surface  determine  the  cli- 
mate?   How  many  zones  would  there  be  if  the  earth  were  flat? 

Physical  Geography. — Imagine  the  coasts  of  Africa  to  be  deeply  indented 
by  seas,  gulfs,  or  bays,  and  state  how  such  a  change  would  affect  the  climate  of 
the  continent;  its  people;  the  commerce  of  the  world.  A  colony  migrates  from 
the  lower  plains  of  the  Torrid  Zone  to  a  plateau  in  the  same  zone,  10,000  or 
12,000  feet  above  the  sea.  State  what  changes  must  he  made  in  the  dwellings, 
the  clothing,  the  food,  and  the  occupations  of  these  immigrants  in  order  that 
they  may  live  in  this  elevated  region.    What  would  be  the  effect  on  the  dimate, 


the  plant  life,  and  the  inhabitants  of  South  America,  if  the  Andes  were  on  the 
eastern  instead  of  the  western  border  of  the  continent?  How  would  the  re- 
moval of  the  Cascade,  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  affect  the  climate  of 
the  Pacific  Highland  region? 

What  would  be  the  effect  if  the  waters  of  the  entire  sea  were  of  uniform 
temperature?  If  all  portions  of  the  atmosphere  were  equally  heated ?  If  the 
earth  were  to  rotate  from  east  over  to  west,  what  would  be  the  direction  of  the 
equatorial  current?  Of  the  trade  winds?  Of  the  return  trades?  What  effect 
would  this  reversed  motion  have  on  the  rainMl  of  different  coasts  ?  What  effect 
on  the  climate  of  Western  Europe? 

Sketch  the  outlines  of  each  continent  and  print,  in  their  proper  places,  the 
names  of  the  most  useful  plants,  including  trees.  In  the  same  manner,  indi- 
cate the  regions  where  the  most  useful  animals  are  found.  Point  out,  on  the 
globe  or  map,  the  waters  where  the  different  food  fishes  are  caught. 

Is  it  probable  that  men  became  wanderers,  or  nomads,  from  choice?  What 
jwrtions  of  the  earth  seem  unfavorable  to  a  fixed  population?  Why  are  they 
so?  Shall  we  find  schools,  churches,  papers,  books,  railways,  etc.,  in  regions 
where  the  inhabitants  are  constantly  roving?  Could  you  tell  the  chaiactei  of  a 
people  by  having  a  list  of  their  occupations? 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


STATES  OF  SOCIETY. 

There  are  three  states  of  society,  which  may  be  represented 
by  the  hunter,  the  shepherd,  and  the  farmer. 

In  the  lowest,  or  savage,  state,  men  own  no  property  except 
what  they  can  carry  with  them  from  place  to  place.  They 
dwell  in  tents  or  rude  huts  and  live  on  such  food  as  they  can 
get  by  hunting  or  fishing,  or  upon  fruits  or  roots  that  grow 
wild  or  with  little  cultivation.  They  live  from  hand  to  mouth, 
providing  nothing  for  a  "rainy  day." 

In  the  pastoral,  or  half-civilized,  state,  people  own  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  camels,  or  other  domestic  animals,  but  have  no 
individual  interest  in  the  soil.  They  are  dwellers  in  tents 
and  rove  from  place  to  place  to  find  fresh  feed  for  their  stock. 

In  the  highest,  or  civilized,  state,  men  own  the  soil  and 
have  fixed  homes.  They  clear  the  forests,  break  the  prairies, 
drain  the  swamps,  construct  highways,  railroads,  and  canals, 
establish  manufactories,  carry  on  trade,  print  papers  and  books, 
and  provide  for  education. 

GOVERNMENT. 

Civilized  men  have  formed  states,  called  Eepublics,  King- 
doms, or  Empires;  and  there  are  two  principal  forms  of  gov- 
ernment, styled  Monarchy  and  Democracy. 

Democracy  is  government  by  the  whole  people;  but,  as  all 
the  people  who  occupy  a  large  country  cannot  assemble  to 
make  and  execute  laws,  power  is  usually  bestowed  on  men 
chosen  by  the  people,  to  serve  for  a  limited  time. 

A  state  in  which  the  government  is  carried  on  by  repre- 
sentatives elected  by  the  people  is  a  Bepublic. 

A  Monarchy  is  a  government  in  which  the  power  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  ruler,  or  monarch,  who  inherits  his  right  to  reign. 

A  Monarchy  is  absolute  when  the  sovereign,  or  ruler,  makes 
such  laws  as  he  pleases;  and  limited  when  he  is  required  to 
govern  according  to  fixed  principles  contained  in  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  country,  and  the  legislative  or  law-making  power 
is  shared  by  the  crown  and  a  popular  assembly. 


Uncivilized  men  are  usually  governed  by  leaders  called 
chiefs. 

The  men  who  form  a  government,  a  state,  a  nation,  or  a  tribe 
must  have  land  or  territory  on  which  to  dwell,  and  we  find  the 
land  surface  of  the  earth  divided  into  countries  owned  or  occu- 
pied by  nations  or  tribes. 

Some  countries  have  natural  boundaries,  such  as  mountain 
ranges,  or  large  bodies  of  water ;  others  are  separated  by  polit- 
ical boundaries,  or  such  as  have  been  agreed  upon  by  the  nations 
concerned. 

The  capital  of  a  country  is  the  seat  of  government;  and 
the  metropolis  is  the  city  where  the  largest  amount  of  business  ^ 
is  transacted. 

RELIGION. 

However  high  or  low  in  the  scale,  nearly  all  men  believe  in 
some  unseen  power,  superior  to  themselves,  whose  favor  they 
are  desirous  of  securing.  There  are  few,  if  any,  who  have 
not  some  faint  notion  of  a  life  beyond  the  grave.  "While  the 
shades  of  religious  belief  and  the  practices  under  those  beliefs 
are  almost  endless,  the  prevailing  systems  of  religion  may  be 
classed  as  follows:  Christianity,  Judaism,  Mohammedism,  Brah- 
minism,  and  Buddhism. 

Christians  are  divided  into  three  bodies:  Protestants,  Eoman 
Catholics,  and  the  Greek  Church,  including  about  380,000,000, 
or  less  than  one-third  of  the  race.  The  Jews  number  about 
8,000,000;  the  Mohammedans,  160,000,000;  the  Brahmins  and 
Buddhists  together,  680,000,000;  and  other  religions  212,000,000. 

The  Jews  believe  in  one  God,  but  do  not  accept  Christ  as  his  Son,  or 
regard  him  as  the  Savior  of  the  world.  They  look  upon  the  Old  Testament  as 
a  sacred  book,  but  reject  the  New. 

Brahminism  was  the  religion  of  the  people  who  conquered  India  fifteen 
centuries  before  Christ,  and  it  is  the  prevailing  religion  in  that  country  to-day. 
Its  three  principal  gods  are  Brahma,  the  creator;  Vishnu,  the  preserver;  and 
Siva,  the  destroyer.  The  Vedas  are  the  oldest  of  its  sacred  books.  Its  castes 
are  an  essential  part  of  the  system. 

Buddhism  was  founded  about  five  hundred  years  before  Christ.  It  began 
in  India,  in  opposition  to  the  system  of  caste  among  the  Brahmins.  Buddha 
represents  intelligence;  Dharma,  matter;  Sanga,  the  mediator  between  them. 
It  is  tlie  religion  of  about  one-fourth  of  mankind. 

Mohammedans  are  followers  of  Mohammed,  who  was  bom  A.  D.  571.  The 
Koran  is  the  Mohammedan  Bible. 


NORTH    AMERICA. 


MAP  STUDIES. 

REVIEW   EXERCISES. 

Physical  Features. —  Locate  and  describe  the  coast  waters,  peninsulas, 
capes,  islands,  highlands,  mountains,  Central  Plain,  lakes,  and  rivers. 

Climate. — In  what  zones  does  the  continent  lie?  State  how  the  climate  is 
affected  by  mountain  ranges;  by  inland  waters;  by  ocean  currents;  by  prevail- 
ing winds;  by  rainfall.  What  portions  of  the  continent  have  a  maritime  and 
what  part  a  continental  climate? 

Plant  Zones. — In  what  plant  zones  does  the  continent  lie?  From  memory, 
write  a  list  of  the  most  valuivble  plants  found  in  each  of  the  zones,  and  state 
whether  indigenons,  or  otherwise. 


Probable  Industries. —  Point  out  those  sections  of  the  continent  which  yon 
judge  to  be  best  suited  to  agriculture;  to  mining;  to  manufacturing;  to  hunt- 
ing; to  lumbering;  to  commerce;  and  give  reasons  for  your  conclusions. 

General  Questions. — How  many  political  divisions  are  included  in  North 
America  ?  Name  them  in  the  order  of  their  size,  beginning  with  the  largest. 
Point  out  the  natural  and  tlie  political  boundaries  of  the  several  countries. 
What  countries  are  crossed  by  mountains?  By  the  Great  Central  Plain?  How 
many  groups  of  islands  are  shown  on  the  map  ?  Name  five  large  islands  in  the 
order  of  their  size. 

EXERCISES.— Locate  and  bound  the  several  coimtrles.  Locate  the 
chief  cities. 

Sketch,  from  memory,  the  outlines  of  the  continent,  and  the  bound- 
aries of  the  several  countries. 


64 


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66 


NOETH   AMEEICA— UNITED  STATES— DESCRIPTION. 


DESCRIPTION. 

History. —  Christopher  Columbas,  a  native  of  (Jenoa,  in 
Italy,  sailing  from  Spain  in  1492,  under  the  patronage  of  the 
sovereigns,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  discovered  the  West  Indies. 
In  1498,  he  discovered  the  continent  of  South  America  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  and,  in  1502,  the  coast  of  Central  Amer- 
ica. He  supposed  the  lands  he  had  found  were  outlying  por- 
tions of  Asia,  and  died  in  ignorance  of  his  discovery  of  what 
has  been  called  the  New  "World. 

John  Cabot  and  his  son  Sebastian,  seeking  a  short  route 
to  India,  sailed  from  Bristol,  England,  in  1497,  taking  a  more 
northerly  course  than  Columbus,  and  discovered  Labrador  and 


Newfoundland.     In  the  following  year  the  younger  Cabot  ex- 
plored a  large  portion  of  the  eastern  coast  of  the  continent. 

Abont  A.  D.  1000,  Norsemen  from  Norway  discovered  Greenland,  and  it  is 
said  that  they  visited  Newfoundland  and  Nova  Scotia,  and  what  is  now  known 
as  the  coast  of  New  England. 

America  takes  its  name  from  Amerigo  Vespucci  (S-marre-go  ves-poo^hee), 
a  Florentine,  who  accompanied  Hojeda,  a  Spanish  commander,  as  astronomer, 
and  explored  a  part  of  the  coast  of  South  Americii  in  1499.  On  his  return  he 
published  an  account  of  his  voyage. 

The  Spaniards,  seeking  gold,  colonized  the  southern  part  of 
the  continent.  The  central  portions  were  slowly  peopled  by  the 
British  and  French. 

The  aborigines  include  two  races.  The  Indians  were  thinly 
scattered  over  the  continent;  and  on  some  of  the  islands  and 
coasts  of  the  north  were  a  few  Esquimaux,  supposed  to  belong 
to  the  Mongolian  race. 


UNITED    STATES. 


DESCRIPTION 


The  United  States  is  a  federal  republic  composed  of  thirty- 
eight  states,  ten  territories,  and  one  district.  In  extent  of 
territory  it  ranks  fourth  among  the  countries  of  the  world. 

Inhabitants. — By  the  census  of  1880  the  population  was 
50,155,783.  Over  four-fifths  of  the  inhabitants  are  whites  of 
European  descent,  the  English,  Irish,  and  Germans  outnumber- 
ing other  nationalities. 

The  negroes  number  abont  6,580,000.  They  are  found  chiefly  in  the  South, 
where  they  were  formerly  held  as  slaves.  The  Chinese,  who  are  most  numer- 
ous on  the  Pacific  coast,  number  over  100,000.  There  are  about  340,000  In- 
dians, mainly  confined  to  the  Indian  Territory  and  the  Pacific  Highlands. 

The  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  occupy  the  eastern  part  of  the  country  and  the 
central  plain.  The  center  of  xwpnlation  is  constantly  moving  westward.  In 
1790,  it  was  just  across  the  Chesapeake,  east  of  Baltimore.  It  is  now  some  dis- 
tance west  of  Cincinnati. 


Government.  —  The  goVerument  of 
the  United  States  has  a  legislative,  an 
executive,  and  a  judicial  department. 

The  legislative  department,  or  Congress,  consists 
of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Eepresentatives. 

The  Senate  consists  of  two  members  from  each  state, 
chosen  by  its  legislature  for  a  term  of  six  years. 

The  House  of  Eepresentatives  is  composed  of  members 
elected  by  vote  of  the  people,  for  a  term  of  two  years.  At 
the  present  time,  each  state  is  entitled  to  one  representative 
for  every  154,000  inhabitants. 

The  President  is  the  chief  executive  officer.  He  is  elected 
for  the  term  of  four  years. 

The  people  of  each  state  choose  as  many  electors  as  the 
state  has  members  in  Congress,  and  the  electors  choose  the 
President  and  Vice  President. 

The  judicial  department,  or  Supreme  Court,  consists  of  a 
chief  justice  and  eight  associate  judges,  who  are  appointed  by 
the  President,  with  the  approval  of  the  Senate. 

Congress  makes  laws  with  the  approval  of  the  President. 
"When  the  President  returns  a  bill  without  his  approval  he  is 
said  to  veto  it. 

Congress  may  pass  a  bill  over  the  President's  veto  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  of  each  HouSe. 


UNITED  STATES— EELIGION—INDUSTEIES. 


67 


The  general  government  regulates  national  affairs.  It  main- 
tains the  army  and  navy,  defends  the  country,  concludes  treat- 
ies, regulates  foreign  commerce,  coins  money,  has  charge  of  the 
public  lands,  provides  postal  service,  etc. 

The  constitution  is  the  supreme  law  of  the  land,  in  accord- 
ance with  which  the  government  is  carried  on.  No  law  is 
valid  when  contrary  to  this  document.  The  Supreme  Court 
decides  the  constitutionality  of  laws  when  cases  are  brought 
before  it. 

Each  state  has  its  own  constitution,  a  governor,  a  legisla- 
ture consisting  of  two  houses,  and  a  supreme  court. 

An  organized  territory  has  a  government  like  that  of  a  state, 
but  the  governor  and  judges  are  appointed  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States.  Such  a  territory  is  allowed  one  delegate 
in  the  lower  house  of  Congress.  He  may  speak  on  any  subject 
before  the  house,  but  he  cannot  vote.  Territories  having  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  inhabitants  may  be  admitted  as  states,  and  then 
are  members  of  the  Union. 

The  general  government  has  left  the  interests  of  education  to 
the  several  states,  but  it  has  helped  to  establish  common  schools 
in  the  newer  ones  by  a  grant  of  public  land,  and  by  the  same 
means  has  provided  for  the  endowment  of  a  college  in  each  state 
for  instruction  in  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts. 

Nearly  all  the  states  have  made  liberal  provisions  for  edu- 
cation. Common  schools  are  maintained  at  public  expense, 
and,  in  some  cases,  high  schools,  normal  schools,  and  universi- 
ties. In  no  other  country  are  the  public  schools  more  hand- 
somely endowed. 

Religion. — There  is  no  established  church,  and  freedom  of 
religious  belief  and  worship  is  secured  to  all  by  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States. 

Industries. — As  we  have  seen,  the  industries  of  a  country 
depend  very  much  on  its  physical  geography.  Recalling  what 
we  have  learned  of  the  different  sections  of  the  United  States  as 
a  part  of  North  America,  we  shall  have  little  difficulty  in  deter- 
mining the  leading  occupations  of  the  people.  See  Industrial 
Map,  pages  92  and  93. 

In  the  Great  Central  Plain  with  its  broad  valleys,  undulat- 
ing uplands,  and  almost  boundless  prairies,  with  a  wonderfully 
fertile  soil  and  a  climate  favorable  to  the  growth  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  useful  plants,  we  find  that  agriculture  is  the  chief  occu- 
pation. In  the  south  are  sugar,  cotton,  and  rice  plantations;  in 
the  middle  belt  grow  hemp  and  tobacco;  further  north  are  vast 
fields  of  corn,  wheat,  and  other  grains. 

On  the  dry,  grassy  plains  bordering  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
from  Montana  to  Texas,  and  in  the  mountain  valleys,  is  the 
great  pasture  region  where  horned  cattle  and  sheep  are  num- 
bered by  millions,  and  are  constantly  increasing. 

In  the  Pacific  Highlands,  where  the  precious  metals  are 
abundant,  and  many  other  minerals  are  found;  where  vast  re- 
gions are  almost  rainless  and  otherwise  unsuited  to  agricul- 
ture, mining  is  the  great  industry. 

West  of  the  Sierras  and  Cascades,  in  the  rich,  warm,  and 
well-watered  valleys,  and  on  countless  irrigated  slopes,  are 
orchards,  vineyards,  orange  groves,  and  wheat  fields. 

Fruit  raising,  grain  and  wool  growing  are  also  important 
occupations. 


In  the  great  forests  of  Washington  and  Oregon  and  in  the 
timbered  region  of  Northern  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Michigan, 
New  York,  and  Maine  much  attention  is  given  to  lumbering. 

The  Atlantic  Highlands,  with  their  inexhaustible  beds  of 
coal,  iron,  and  building  stone,  their  salt  and  oil  wells,  their 
valuable  timber,  rapid  streams,  and  noble  harbors,  support  a 
large  population,  engaged  in  mining  and  manufacturing. 

Along  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  coast,  where  there  are 
oyster  beds,  where  salmon  and  shad  teem  in  the  rivers,  and 
schools  of  cod,  herring,  and  mackerel  crowd  the  sea,  men  find 
fishing  a  profitable  employment. 

In  a  country  like  ours,  where  one  section  produces  grain, 
another  cotton,  a  third  manufactured  articles,  and  so  on,  there 
must  be  an  exchange  of  products,  or  commerce. 

The  inland,  or  domestic,  commerce  of  the  United  States  is 
carried  on  by  means  of  many  natural  water-ways,  canals,  and 
railroads,  the  latter  forming  a  complete  net-work  extending 
from  ocean  to  ocean.  Foreign  commerce  centers  in  the  great 
seaports,  and  immense  steamships  are  extensively  used  in  this 
trade.  Two-thirds  of  the  imports  and  nearly  one-half  of  the 
exports  pass  through  New  York.  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Balti- 
more, New  Orleans,  and  San  Francisco  are  also  important  ship- 
ping ports. 

Exports. — The  leading  exports  are  cotton,  breadstuffs,  pro- 
visions, the  precious  metals,  petroleum,  and  tobacco.  Much  of 
our  cotton  goes  to  supply  the  mills  of  Great  Britain.  Large 
quantities  of  flour,  lumber,  and  manufactured  goods  go  to  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies. 

Imports. — Iron,  tin,  and  dry  goods  are  imported  from  Eng- 
land; silks  and  wines  from  France;  teas,  porcelain  and  raw 
silk  from  China  and  Japan;  coffee  from  Brazil  and  Java;  sugar 
and  fruits  from  the  West  Indies;  hides  and  horns  from  South 
America. 

Groups  of  States. — For  convenience  of  study,  the  United  '^ 
States  may  be  divided  into  the  following  sections: 

New  England  States.— Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont, 
Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island. 

Middle  Atlantic  States.— New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New 
Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  West  Virginia. 

Southern  States.— North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
Florida,  Alabama,  Tennessee,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Ar- 
kansas, Indian  Territory. 

Central  States.— Ohio,  Kentucky,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michi- 
gan, Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
North  Dakota,  and  South  Dakota. 

Pacific  States  and  Territories. — California,  Oregon,  Colo- 
rado, Nevada,  Montana,  Washington,  and  the  territories  of 
Wyoming,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Utah,  Idaho,  and  Alaska. 

Historical  Notes. — The  original  thirteen  states,  which  were  colonies  of  Great 
Britain  before  the  Revolutionary  War,  are  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Pennsylvania,  llaryland, 
Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
the  United  States  extended  to  Florida  on  the  south,  and  as  far  west  as  the  Mis- 
sissippi. The  first  states  admitted  after  the  formation  of  the  Union  were  Ver- 
mont, Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Ohio,  Louisiana,  Indiana,  and  Mississippi. 

The  United  States  did  not  originally  comprise  much  over  one-fourth  of  the 
present  area.  Florida  was  obtained  from  Spain  in  1819  The  territory  west  of 
the  Mississippi  was  secured  by  purchase  from  Louisiana  in  1803;  by  the  annex- 
ation of  Texas  in  1845;  by  cessions  from  Mexico  in  1848-53;  and  by  the  pur- 
chase of  Alaska  from  Russia  in  1867. 


Pacific  or  120°  meridian  TiMe 


MOUNTAIN  Oft  1p5»  MERIDIAN  TIME 


MAP  STUDIES. 

General  Questions. — Including  Alaska,  how  many  states  and  territorieB 
are  there  in  the  United  States?  Name  the  largest  state.  The  smallest.  Which 
is  the  largest  territory  ?  How  do  the  states  east  of  the  Mississippi  compare  in 
dizo  with  the  states  and  territories  west?  Does  the  larger  portion  of  the  United 
States  lie  east  or  west  of  the  Mississippi? 

What  states  lie  on  the  Atlantic  slope?  What  is  the  general  direction  of  the 
tiy«i8  of  that  slope?    What  states  ate  crossed  by  the  Appalachian  rauges,  oi 


THE  CLOCK  DIALS  SHOW  THE  MEAN  TIME  ON  THE  ME 

the  Atlantic  Highlands?    What  states  and  territories  are  included,  wholly  or  | 
in  part,  in  the  Pacific  Highland  region?    What  rivers  drain  this  region ? 

What  states  and  territory  lie  on  the  Pacific?  What  state  and  territories  i 
are  crossed  by  the  Rocky  Mountains?  What  states  and  territories  are  drained  i 
wholly  or  in  part  by  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries?  What  states  are] 
drained  by  rivers  other  than  the  Mississippi,  flowing  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico? 
What  states  are  bordered  by  the  Great  Lakes?  What  states  form  a  part  of  the  i 
Great  Central  Plain?  What  states  are  without  mountains?  What  states  form 
the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi  ?  The  west  bank  ?  What  states  are  crossed  by 
the  Missouri?    By  the  Ohio? 


RIDIANS  AS  COMPARED  WITH  GREENWICH  MEAN  NOON. 

Na.e  and  locate  nine  gr^t  citi.  of  the  g^ited  S^^|  J^^^^-^  ^^^SI  ^^^^^^^'^^0^^^^^^'^'^^^^!^ 

'Nt™a*^r  ^"So°  '  »  i^  th":  '^ZZrJ:'l.t^ZnXr^2  tnes,  ana  state  the  reasons  for  yonr  conclusions. 

of  the  Woods?    Reckoning  by  the  meridians,  what  is  the  distance  in  miles  from  EXERCISES.- Sketch  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States;  the  GuU 

""m^TsnL^CgL^e^rwLhfngtonr  S^^^^                       Of  the  eastern  coast;  the  Paclflc  coast:  the  northei.  boundax^.   Which  coast  is  most  In- 

bonndary  of  Maine?'   What  is  the  latitude  of  Cape  Sable,  Florida?    Of  the  dented?  Sketch  the  Appalachian  ranges ;  coast  range;  Sierra  Nevada  and 

northern  boundary  of  the  United  States  west  of  Lake  of  the  Woods?  Cascade  ranges;  the  Rocky  Mountams;  sketch  the  Mississippi,  Missouri. 

In  what  phmt  zones  does  the  United  States  lie?    What  grains,  vegetables,  and  Ohio;  the  Rio  Grande, 
and  fruits  are  best  suited  to  the  northern  portion?    To  the  middle  belt?    To 


General   Ques- 

tions.-In  what  phys- 
ical region  of  the 
L'nited  States  does 
this  section  lie? 
How  many  stat«s  in 
the  group?  Name 
them  in  the  order  of 
their  size.  What  is  the  character  of  the  coast?  What  are  the  natural  advan- 
tages for  commerce?  What  part  of  New  England  is  most  uneven?  What  is 
the  general  slope?  What  can  yon  say  ef  the  number  of  lakes  and  streams? 
Which  portion  contains  the  largest  number  of  lakes? 

How  does  the  latitude  of  Northern  Vermont  compare  with  the  latitude  of 
St.  Paul?  Boston  with  Chicago?  What  effect  does  the  sea  have  on  New  Eng- 
land climate?    What  portions  of  New  England  are  most  thickly  peopled? 

EXERCISES.— Locate  and  describe  the  coast  waters,  capes,  mountains, 
largest  lakes,  rivers,  and  states.*   Locate  Important  cities. 

Sketch  boundaries,  mountains,  chief  rivers,  and  locate  important  cities. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Name. — New  England  received  its  name  from  Capt.  John 
Smith,  who  explored  a  portion  of  its  coast  in  1614  and  drew 
the  first  map  of  the  country.  Though  its  six  states  taken 
together  are  smaller  than  Minnesota,  it  is  one  of  the  most 
important  sections  of  the  Union. 

Surface. — It  is  a  land  of  low  rounded  mountains,  of  count- 

♦  See  "Hints  to  the  Teacher,"  In  the  preface. 


less  hills,  of  clear,  beautiful 
lakes,  of  rapid  streams,  and  indented 
coasts  with  a  large  number  of  excel- 
lent harbors.  "'"^ 

Agriculture. — There  are  some  fertile  valleys,  like  that  of  the 
Connecticut,  but  most  of  its  rocky  soil  is  better  adapted  to  graz- 
ing than  tillage.  Potatoes,  corn,  and  oats  are  leading  cultivated 
crops;  but  grass,  hay,  horses,  sheep,  cattle,  butter,  and  cheese 
constitute  the  wealth  of  its  farms.  Most  of  the  flour,  and  much 
of  the  beef  and  pork  are  brought  from  the  West. 

Minerals. — Marble,  granite,  slate,  and  other  building  stones 
are  abundant,  and  the  products  of  its  quarries  are  very  impor- 
tant. Forests  of  pine,  spruce,  and  hemlock  are  found  in  the 
north. 

Commercial  Advantages. — Its  numerous  harbors  along  the . 
rugged  coast  of  the  east,  and  the  more  level  coast  of  the  south, 
with  many  railways,  aflford  excellent  facilities  for  commerce. 

Manufactures. — The  Merrimac,  Saco,  Androscoggin,  Kenne- 
bec, Penobscot,  Blackstone,  and  many  other  streams  furnish 
excellent  water-power.  Manufacturing  cities  and  villages  are 
thickly  scattered  over  a  large  portion  of  its  surface,  making  it 
the  greatest  manufacturing  region  of  the  United  States. 

The  manufactures  include  fabrics  of  cotton,  wool,  leather,  metal,  and  wood, 
together  with  firearms,  machinery,  tools,  and  other  articles  almost  without 
number.  Much  of  the  raw  material  used  in  manufacturing  is  brought  from 
abroad. 

Ship  loads  of  cotton  come  from  the  South;  hides  and  wool  from  South 
America  and  the  West;  iron  and  coal  from  Pennsylvania;  and  raw  silk  from 
Japan  and  China. 

Inhabitants. — The  inhabitants  are  mainly  of  English  stock. 


70 


72 


NEW  ENGLAND  STATES— THE  MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES. 


They  are  noted  for  industry,  energy,  and  enterprise.  Many  of 
her  sons  and  daughters  have  left  their  native  hills  to  people  new 
states.  Common  schools,  normal  schools,  academies,  and  col- 
leges are  established  and  liberally  maintained. 

Institutions  of  Learning. — Harvard  University,  at  Cambridge,  Massachu- 
setts; Yale  College,  at  New  Haveu,  Connecticut;  Brown  University,  at  Provi- 
dence, Rhode  Island;  Dartmouth  College,  at  Hanover,  New  Hampshire;  Wil- 
liams College,  at  Williamstown,  Massachusetts;  Bowdoin  College,  at  Brunswick, 
Maine,  and  the  University  of  Vermont  are  noted  institutions,  whose  graduates 
fill  places  of  honor  and  trust  throughout  the  world.  Smith  College,  at  North- 
ampton, Massachusetts,  and  Wellesley  College,  both  lor  women,  are  widely 
known. 

Maine,  the  "Pine  Tree  State,"  possesses  many  fine  harbors. 
Over  one-eleventh  of  its  surface  is  covered  by  lakes  and  rivers. 
The  St.  John  alone  drains  a  hundred  lakes  and  ponds.  The 
state  is  noted  for  its  lumbering,  its  ship  building,  and  its  ice 
trade. 

Cities. — Portland,  the  largest  city,  has  a  fine  harbor  and  an  extensive  trade" 
— When  ice  closes  the  St.  Lawrence,  it  is  a  starting  point  for  steamers  bound  for 
Liverpool  and  Glasgow,  and  is  then  the  great  outlet  of  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley. 
Bangor  is  a  large  lumber  market.^Bath  is  noted  for  ship  building. — Lewis- 
ton  and  Biddeford  manufacture  cotton  and  woolen  goods. 

New  Hampshire,  the  "Granite  State,"  is  famed  for  its 

beautiful  scenery.     It  is  sometimes  called  the  "Switzerland  of 

America." 

Cities. — Manchester  and  Nashua  manufacture  cotton  and  woolen  goods. — 
Portsmouth  has  a  good  harbor,  and  one  of  the  United  States  navy  yards  is 
located  there. — Concord  manufactures  fine  carriages. 

Vermont,  the  "Green  Mountain  State,"  takes  its  name  from 
the  mountains  which  the  forests  of  fir  and  pine  render  perpetu- 
ally verdant.  It  is  noted  for  its  fine  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep, 
and  for  its  quarries  of  slate,  marble,  and  soapstone. 

Lake  Champlain  and  Lake  George,  on  the  west,  are  celebrated  for  their 
fine  views,  and  for  having  been  the  scene  of  several  battles  in  Colonial  days. 

Cities. —  Burlington  is  a  large  lumber  market. — Rutland,  the  largest  town, 
and  Middlebury  have  quarries  of  white  and  variegated  marble. — St.  Johnsbury 
is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  weighing  scales. 


Massachusetts,  the  "Bay  State,"  is  among  the  foremost 
states  in  manufactures,  producing  every  variety  of  cotton  and 
woolen  fabrics,  iron  and  steel  goods,  woodenware,  furniture, 
boots  and  shoes,  jewelry,  and  glassware.  It  takes  the  lead  in 
fisheries,  and  is  second  only  to  New  York  in  commerce.  It  was 
the  first  state  to  oppose  the  British  government  at  the  time  of 
the  Eevolution,  and  the  first  to  establish  free  schools. 

Cities. —  Boston  is  the  metroix)lis  of  New  England,  and  is  noted  for  its  com- 
merce, its  public  schools,  libraries,  and  literary  institutions.  In  foreign  com- 
merce it  ranks  next  to  New  York  and  New  Orleans.  Thousands  of  tradesmen 
and  professional  men  of  the  city  live  in  beautiful  suburban  towns,  which  are 
connected  with  Boston  by  rail. 

Lowell,  Lawrence,  and  Fall  River  are  the  chief  seats  of  the  cotton  and 
woolen  manufactures. — Worcester  has  a  great  variety  of  manufactures,  and  is  a 
railroad  center. —  Lynn  is  noted  for  its  shoe  factories. — Springfield  is  the  seatof 
a  United  States  arsenal.  —  New  Bedford  is  the  greatest  whale-fishing  port  in  the  / 
world,  though  the  trade  has  greatly  fallen  ofi"  since  kerosene  came  into  general 
use. — Newbury  port  is  engaged  in  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries.  Plymouth  is  re- 
membered as  the  landing  place  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  in  1620. —  Lexington 
and  Concord  are  famed  for  early  Revolutionary  engagements. 

The  Hoosac  Mountains,  in  the  western  part  of  the  state,  have  been  tunneled 
for  the  Boston  &  Troy  Railroad.     The  tunnel  is  nearly  five  miles  in  length. 

Rhode  Island  is  the  smjallest  and  most  thickly  peopled  state 
in  the  Union.  It  received  its  hame  from  an  island  in  Narra- 
gansett  Bay. 

Cities. —  Providence,  one  of  the  two  capitals  of  the  state,  is  the  second  city 
in  New  England.  It  is  a  great  manufacturing  center. — Newport,  the  other  capi- 
tal, is  a  famous  summer  resort. '  _  .  , 

Brown  University,  located  at  Pfovidenc^  was  founded  in  1636  by  Roger 
Williams,  the  noted  advocate  of^religious'*niftl.l)olitlcal  freedom,  who  was 
banished  from  Massachusetts.  '^ .  *,. 

Connecticut  is  noted  for' the  great  variety  of  its  manufac- 
tures. It  makes  more  sewing  machines,  pins,  clocks,  and  plated- 
ware  than  any  other  state  in  the  Uiiion.  i 

Cities.— New  Haven,  the  "City  of  Elms,/'  is  the  seat  of  Yale  College. 
—  Hartford  manufactures  firearms  and  machinery. 


THE    MIDDLE    ATLANTIC    STATIJS. 


MAP  STUDIES. 


General  Questions. — How  many  states  are  included  in  this  group  ?  Name 
them  in  the  order  of  their  size.  I.s  the  coast  favorable  or  unfavorable  to  foreign 
commerce?  What  states  are  crossed  by  mountain  ranges ?  What  great  rivers 
break  through  the  mountain  ranges  ?  Do  the  long  estuaries  at  the  months  of 
the  rivers  indicate  low  or  high  coasts? 

What  is  the  climate  of  this  section?  What  portion  has  the  mildest  climate? 
Is  this  map  drawn  on  a  larger  or  smaller  scale  than  the  map  of  New  England? 
Which  state  is  without  mountains?  How  do  the  states  of  this  section  compare 
in  size  with  those  of  New  England?  Which  is  further  north,  Philadelphia 
or  San  Francisco  ? 

EXERCISES.— Locate  and  describe  the  coast  waters,  islands,  moun- 
tains, chief  lakes,  rivers,  and  states.     Locate  important  cities. 

Sketch  the  boundaries,  mountains,  lakes,  chief  rivers,  and  locate  im- 
portant cities. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Surface. — As  this  section  is  crossed  by  the  Atlantic  High- 
lands, the  greater  part  of  the  surface  is  hilly  or  mountainous. 
A  low,  sandy  belt,  quite  narrow  in  the  north,  but  broader  in  the 


south,  stretches  along  the  Atlantic,  and  q,  narrow  lowland  belt 
borders  the  Great  Lakes.  ' 

Agriculture. — On  the  whole,  the  land  is  much  more  fertile 
than  that  of  New  England,  and  almost  every  branch  of  agricul- 
ture is  carried  on,  according  to  the  climate,  soil,  and  market 
demands.  Grains,  vegetables,  orchard  fruits,  and  berries  are 
grown;  and  in  the  grass  and  hay  belt  of  the  northern  half, 
stock  raising  and  dairying  receive  much  attention.  ;> 

Minerals. — The  great  natui-al  wealth  of  the  section  comes 
from  its  extensive  mines  of  coal,  iron,  and  zinc;  from  its  quar- 
ries, its  brine  springs,  oil  wells,  and  mountain  forests  of  pine 
and  spruce  in  the  north,  and  hardwoods  in  the  south. 

Manufactures. — The  numerous,  rapid  streams,  and  the  great 
supply  of  coal,  together  with-tji©  aTbiuiidaiiQe  and  cheapness  of 
the  raw  material,  give  unusual  6ilti(SUra^«ment  to  manufactur- 
ing, and  this  group  of  states  takes  the  lead  of  all  other  sections 
in  the  value  of  its  manufactured  articles.  The  principal  manu- 
factures are  iron  goods,  machinery,  ghiss.taill  products,  leather, 
lumber,  boots  and  shoes,  cotton  and  woolen  goods. 


79    tongitade  "W^sti  from       17      Qreenwlcli 


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MIDDLE  ATLANTIC 

STATES. 


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74 


THE  MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES. 


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Commerce. — 

The  harbors  on 

the    Atlantic 

coast   and    the 

Great  Lakes,  the 

navigable  rivers,  the  canals  and  extensive  railways  afford 

unsurpassed  facilities  for  domestic  and  foreign  commerce, 

and  the  Middle  States  constitute  the  first  commercial  section  of 

the  Union. 

These  states  not  only  carry  their  own  products,  hut  through  their  great 
commercial  centers— New  York,  Brooklyn,  Philatlelphia,  and  Baltimore  —  flow 
unending  streams  of  grain,  and  other  products  of  western  farms,  to  England, 
France,  Spain,  and  other  countries  of  the  Old  World;  to  the  West  Indies,  and 
to  South  America. 

Through  these  marts  of  trade  come  a  large  part  of  the  sugar,  coft'ee,  tea, 
tropical  fruits,  spices,  silks,  cloths,  etc.,  hrought  from  foreign  lands,  and  con- 
sumed hy  the  people  of  the  Great  Central  Plain. 

The  Erie  Canal,  connecting  the  Great  Lakes  with  the  Hudson,  is  363  miles 
long,  70  feet  wide,  and  7  feet  deep.  It  is  the  largest  and  most  irajwrtant  canal  in  the  United 
States,  and  is  chiefly  employed  in  carrying  grain  and  such  bulky  products  as  do  not  require 
quick  transit.  It  has  been  of  great  value  to  the  people  of  the  West  in  moving  their  crops  to 
the  sealward  at  a  low  charge  for  freight.  The  construction  of  this  work  is  due  to  the  untir- 
ing efforts  of  De  Witt  Clinton,  a  governor  of  New  York.     The  canal  was  opened  in  1825. 

New  York,  the  "Empire  State,"  exceeds  every  other  state  in  popu- 
lation, wealth,  and  commerce;  and  is  among  the  first  in  manufactures.  Wheat 
and  hay,  hops,  butter,  and  cheese  are  its  staple  agricultural  products.  Vast 
quantities  of  salt  are  made  from  the  Onondaga  Salt  Springs  near  the  center 
of  the  state. 

The  most  noted  institutions  of  learning  are  Columbia  College,  New  York; 
Cornell  University,  Ithaca;  Vassar  College,  for  women,  at  Poughkeepsie;  and  the 
United  States  Military  Academy,  at  West  Point. 

Hundreds  of  sportsmen  visit  the  Adirondacks  every  year,  camping  by  the  clear  mountain  lakes  and 
otreiims  to  catch  the  speckled  trout,  or  to  hunt  for  deer  in  the  almost  unbroken  forests. 

Saratoga  Mineral  Springs  are  famed  for  their  medicinal  waters.  Immense  hotels  have  been  bnilt  to 
accommodate  the  crowd  of  liishionable  visitors  who  gather  from  all  parts  of  the  United  States  during  the 
heated  term. 

The  lakes  in  Central  New  York  are  famed  for  the  beauty  of  their  shores,  and  the  lovely  Chautauqua 
Lake,  in  the  west,  is  a  favorite  camping  ground  for  religious  and  literary  societies. 

Cities. — New  York,  the  largest  and  most  important  city  on  the  continent,  is  situated  on  Manhattan  Island,  at  the  junction  of  the  Hudson  with  the  East 
Kiver.    It  contains,  with  Brooklyn  and  other  suburbs,  nearly  2,000,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  chief  center  of  trade  for  the  whole  of  the  United  States.    About 


"Ji^m;^::< 


THE  MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES. 


75 


THB  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK,  FROM  BROOKLYN  HEIGHTS. 


two-thirds  of  the  entire  foreign  commerce  of  the  country  passes  through  the 
city.  It  has  magnificent  public  and  private  buildings,  and  its  Central  Park  is  a 
large  and  beautiful  pleasure  ground.  New  York  is  a  great  manufacturing,  as 
well  as  a  commercial  center.  Thousands  of  its  people  are  engaged  in  book  pub- 
lishing, sugar  refining,  brewing,  making  clothing,  boots,  shoes,  and  furniture. 

Brooklyn  is  the  third  city  of  the  Union  in  size,  and  is  sometimes  called 
the  ' '  City  of  Churches. "  It  contains  spacious  warehouses,  large  manufactories, 
docks,  and  a  United  States  navy  yard.  It  is  really  but  a  part  of  New  York. 
At  Buffalo  the  grain,  live  stock  and  lumber,  shipped  over  the  lakes  from  the 
West,  are  transferred  from  vessels  to  canal  boats.  Large  quantities  of  coal  are 
reshipped  for  ports  on  the  upper  lakes,  and  iron  goods  are  extensively  manu- 
factured.—  Rochester  and  Oswego  are  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  flour,  Syra- 
cuse for  salt,  and  Troy  for  its  iron  works. 

The  Hudson  Eiver,  which  is  navigable  to  Troy,  is  famed  for  its  beautiful 
scenery.  On  the  right  bank,  some  distance  above  New  York,  rise  columns  of 
rock,  called  the  Palisades,  to  the  height  of  400  or  500  feet.  Fine  houses,  viUas, 
and  lawns  are  seen  at  every  turn.  Up  and  down  the  river  ply  steamers  with 
flying  colors,  bands  of  music,  and  parties  of  pleasure  seekers;  and  here  and 
there  are  boats,  with  their  white  sails  spread  to  the  breeze. 

Pennsylvania,  the  "Keystoue  State,"  ranks  next  to  New 

York  in  population  and  in  the  value  of  its  manufactures.     It  is 

the  great  mining  state  of  the  Union.     Nearly  two-thirds  of  the 

coal  and  one-half  of  the  iron  used  in  the  United  States  are  lifted 

from  its  mines,  and  nearly  all  the  petroleum  that  lights  our 

homes  is  pumped  from  its  wells. 

The  coal  of  Pennsylvania  is  of  two  varieties,  anthracite  and  bituminous. 
The  anthracite  region  lies  in  that  part  of  the  state  east  of  the  Susquehanna. 
The  bituminous  is  found  mainly  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Alleghanies.  The 
oil  wells  are  in  the  northwestern  part. 

Cities. — Philadelphia  covers  an  area  of  130  square  miles,  and  ranks  next 
to  New  York  in  population  and  manufactures.  It  exports  more  coal  than  any 
other  city  in  the  Union,  and  has  an  extensive  domestic  commerce.  It  is  noted 
for  its  beautiful  parks,  comfortable  homes,  well-supplied  markets,  and  build- 
ings of  historic  interest.  Among  the  latter  is  Independence  Hall,  where  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  was  signed,  July  4, 1776.  The  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania is  also  located  here. 

Pittsburgh  and  Allegheny  are  at  the  head  of  steam  navigation  on  the  Ohio, 
and  are  great  centers  for  the  manufacture  of  glass  and  iron,  and  large  markets 
for  bituminous  coal  and  petroleum. — Scranton,  Pottsville,  and  Wilkesbarre  are 
centers  of  the  anthracite  coal  trade. 

New  Jersey  lies  mainly  in  the  lowland  belt  along  the  At- 
lantic. Her  people  are  extensively  engaged  in  market  gardening 
and  fruit  growing,  the  large  cities  furnishing  a  ready  market. 
Fruits  and  vegetables  are  canned  for  the  western  trade.  There 
are  rich  mines  of  zinc. 

Cities. — Trenton  is  noted  for  its  manufacture  of  crockery,  Newark  for  its 
rubber  goods,  Paterson  for  its  silks  and  locomotives. —  Princeton  is  the  seat  of 
the  College  of  New  Jersey,  an  institution  of  great  note;  and  New  Brunswick,  of 
Rutgers  College. 


Delaware  is  next  to  the  smallest  state  in  the  Union,  and 
is  famed  for  its  fruits. 

Wilmington  manufactures  iron  ships,  powder,  and  railroad  cars. 

Maryland  is  noted  for  its  fine  climate.  The  peninsula  be- 
tween the  Atlantic  and  the  Chesapeake  Bay  is  a  great  peach 
region.  Ducks  swarm  on  the  low,  marshy  shores  of  the  bay, 
and  oysters,  fish,  and  terrapin  are  abundant.  The  oyster  trade 
alone  employs  over  30,000  men,  and  immense  schools  of  shad 
and  herring  are  taken  in  the  long  seines  of  the  fishermen.  A 
large  portion  of  the  "West  is  supplied  with  oysters  from  these 
waters. 

Corn,  wheat,  and  tobacco  are  staples  of  the  farms,  and  coal 
and  iron  of  the  mines  in  the  west. 

Cities. — Annapolis  is  the  seat  of  the  United  States  Naval  Academy. — Balti- 
more, named  in  honor  of  Lord  Baltimore,  who  sent  a  colony  to  Maryland  in 
1634,  is  one  of  the  great  commercial  cities  of  the  country.  It  has  extensive 
flouring  miUs,  iron  works,  cotton  factories,  and  canning  establishments.  Lines 
of  steamships  connect  it  with  Bremen  and  Liverpool.  It  is  the  seat  of  Johns 
Hopkins  University  and  of  Loyola  College. 

Baltimore  is  called  the  "  Monumental  City . "  It  received  its  name  fitom  the 
Washington,  Battle,  and  other  monuments  erected  by  its  patriotic  citizens.  The 
former  is  a  white  marble  shaft,  180  feet  high,  surmounted  by  a  statue  of  Wash- 
ington, six  feet  high.     The  monument  was  completed  in  1830. 

The  District  of  Columbia  originally  included  an  area  of 
100  square  miles.  In  1790,  Maryland  and  Virginia  ceded  it  to 
the  United  States  to  be  the  seat  of  the  general  government. 
The  portion  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Potomac  was  ceded  back 
to  Virginia  in  1846,  so  that  the  district  now  contains  70  square 
miles.    It  was  named  in  honor  of  Columbus. 

Washington  was  planned  by  Gen.  Washington,  and  it  is  a  beautiful  city. 
The  principal  buildings  are  the  Capitol,  Treasury,  Patent  Office,  Smithsonian 
Institution,  Naval  Observatory,  and  the  White  House. 

Virginia,  the  earliest  settled  of  the  original  thirteen  states, 
is  sometimes  called  the  "Old  Dominion."  It  is  rich  in  coal 
and  iron,  and  ranks  among  the  first  states  in  the  production 
of  tobacco  and  garden  vegetables.  Its  oyster  beds  are  mines 
of  wealth. 

Cities — Richmond  has  extensive  tobacco  manufactories,  flouring  mills,  and 
machine  shops.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  Confederate  States  during  the  closing 
years  of  the  Civil  War.— Norfolk  has  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  United 
States. 

Among  the  curiosities  in  Virginia  are  the  Luray  Caves  and  the  Natural 
Bridge,  a  rock  arch  200  feet  high  and  90  feet  wide,  spanning  a  stream.     These 


76 


THE  MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES— THE  SOUTHEEN  STATES. 


are  west  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  in  the  valley  of  Virginia,  the  most  fertile  part  of  the  adapted  to  stock  raising,  and  is  rich  in  COal,  iron,  salt,  and 
state.  ,      , 

William  and  Mary  College,  at  Williamsburgh,  named  after  the  King  and  petroleum. 

uS  siaKxcept  Harv^*!"""^  *''"'  ^''^'  ''  ^^^  ""^''*  *"'"'^*  ^  ^^^  Cities.-Wheeling  has  important  mannfectnres  and  tiBde.- Charleston  is 

'  '  noted  for  its  salt  springs. 

West  Virginia,  which  adhered  to  the  North  during  the  Wells  are  bored  through  the  rocks  below  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  the  brine 

Rebellion,  was  formed  into  a  separate  state  in  1862.      It  is  well  is  pumped.     Cincinnati  meat  packers  use  large  quantities  of  Kanawha  salt. 


THE    SOUTHERN    STATES. 


MAP  STUDIES. 


General  Questions. — In  what  part  of  the  United  States  does  this  section  lief  In 
what  physical  region  ?  Is  the  map  drawn  on  a  larger  or  a  smaller  scale  than  thsnt  of 
the  Middle  Atlantic  States?  How  many  states  in  the  group?  Which  is  the  smallest? 
The  largest?  What  states  lie  on  the  Atlantic?  On  the  Gulf?  On  the  Mississippi? 
Wliat  is  the  character  of  the  coast?  Where  is  the  most  elevated  region?  Where  do  most 
of  the  streams  rise?  What  is  the  general  course  of  the  streams?  W^hat  is  the  climate  of 
the  section  ?  Where  is  the  climate  most  tempered  by  sea  breezes?  Judging  by  the  cities, 
how  does  the  population  compare  with  that  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  ?  Name  some 
of  the  commercial  advantages  of  the  Southern  States. 

EXERCISES.— Locate  and  describe  the  coast  waters,  capes,  mountains,  lakes, 
rivers,  and  states.    Locate  important  cities. 

Sketch  boundaries,  mountains,  chief  rivers,  and  locate  important  citieB. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Coast — Surface. — The  coast  of  the  Southern  States  is 
low  and  swampy.  Almost  everywhere  it  is  bordered  by  nar- 
row, sandy  islands,  with  shoal  water  between 
them  and  the  mainland.  There  are  compara- 
tively few  good  harbors.  The  low  coast  or 
tide-water  belt  extends  inland  from  200  to 
300  miles,  where  the  upland,  hilly  country 


FATHERING  COTTON.  ALABAMA 


'\     -4 


78 


TBE  SOUTHERN  STATES. 


begins.  From  the  monntains,  or  highlands,  to  the  inner  mar- 
gin of  the  coast  belt  the  streams  are  rapid  and  water-power  is 
abundant.    In  the  lowland  belt  they  are  deep  and  sluggish. 

Agriculture. — As  a  whole,  the  soil  and  climate  of  this  sec- 
tion are  very  favorable  to  agriculture,  and  farming,  or  planting, 
as  it  is  called,  is  the  chief  interest.  Cotton,  sugar,  rice,  corn, 
and  tobacco  are  the  great  staples. 

Cotton  is  grown  in  all  the  states  —  the  sea-island  cotton  along  the  coast,  the 
upland  variety  in  the  interior.  Com  is  also  raised  everywhere,  and  is  fed  to 
horses  and  mules  on  all  the  plantations.  Corn-bread  is  eaten  by  rich  and  poor. 
Rice  culture  is  limited  to  lands  that  can  be  flooded!  Sweet  potatoes  are  as 
common  in  the  South  as  Irish  potatoes  are  in  the  North. 

Manufactures. — Manufacturing  industries  are  springing  up, 
particularly  in  the  highland  portions  of  Georgia,  Tennessee,  the 
Carolinas,  and  in  Texas.  There  are  vast  mineral  resources,  but 
little  has  been  done  to  develop  them. 

Commerce. —  There  is  a  large  domestic  trade  over  the  rail- 
ways and  the  many  navigable  rivers,  of  which  the  Mississippi 
is  chief.  Foreign  commerce  is  carried  on  mainly  through  the 
ports  of  New  Orleans,  Galveston,  Mobile,  Savannah,  Charleston, 
and  Wilmington.  The  chief  exports  are  cotton,  sugar,  tobacco, 
and  rice.  The  imports  consist  of  almost  every  variety  of  man- 
ufactured articles. 

Most  of  the  manual  labor  of  the  South  is  performed  by  colored  people,  who 
form  a  large  portion  of  the  population.  In  traveling  over  the  country,  one  does 
not  see  small  farms  or  manufacturing  villages  and  cities  like  those  of  New  Eng- 
land or  the  Middle  States. 

The  land  is  usually  divided  into  large  plantations,  and  the  planters'  houses 
are  often  miles  apart.  Near  them  are  the  cabins  of  the  negro  laborers.  The 
villages  are  usually  quiet  places,  undisturbed  by  rumbling  machinery  or  roaring 
furnaces.     Horseback  riding  is  much  more  common  than  in  the  North. 

Education. — Public  education  is  now  receiving  much  atten- 
tion, and  all  the  states  have  made  some  provisions  for  free 
schools,  and  most  of  them  contain  many  institutions  for  the 
higher  education  of  both  sexes. 

In  the  days  of  slavery,  the  wealthy  patronized  private  schools  at  home  or 
sent  their  children  to  the  colleges  at  the  North,  The  slaves  and  the  poor  whites 
were  not  taught  to  read  or  write. 

North  Carolina,  the  "Old  North  State,"  is  noted  for  its  pine 
forests,  from  which  turpentine,  tar,  pitch,  and  resin  are  obtained 
in  large  quantities. 

The  products  are  called  "naval  stores,"  because  of  their  use  in  the  con- 
struction of  vessels.  Tar  is  used  on  the  rigging,  and  pitch  to  cover  the  seams 
between  the  planks.  Many  of  the  pines  are  tall  and  straight,  and  are  used  as 
masts  for  ships. 

The  shad  and  herring  fisheries  are  important. 

Wilmington  is  the  chief  market  of  the  world  for  naval  stores,  and  exports 
rice  and  cotton. 

South  Carolina,  the  "Palmetto  State,"  is  noted  for  its  sea- 
island  cotton  and  its  rice.  The  state  takes  its  name,  "Palmetto," 
from  the  palmetto  palm,  a  native  tree. 

The  sea-island  cotton  has  a  long  delicate  fiber.  It  is  chiefly  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  laces  and  other  fine  goods.  The  rice  fields  along  the  coast  are 
flooded  by  the  tides.  The  tides  are  kept  out  by  embankments  that  are  opened 
when  the  water  is  required. 

Charleston  is  the  first  rice  market  in  the  United  States,  and  large  quantities 
of  cotton  and  naval  stores  are  shipped. 

Georgia  is  the  leading  state  of  this  section  in  manufactur- 


ing iron  and  cotton  goods.  Gold,  coal,  iron  and  marble  are 
found  in  the  north;  pine  and  superior  live  oak  for  ship  build- 
ing grow  in  the  forests  of  the  southeast. 

Cities.  —  Atlanta  is  the  largest  city,  and  a  railroad  center.  It  has  extensive 
manufactures  and  a  large  trade. — Augusta  and  Columbus  have  cotton  and 
woolen  mills. — Savannah  exports  cotton,  rice,  and  lumber. 

Florida  is  famed  for  its  mild  climate  and  its  orange  groves. 

It  produces  early  fruits  and  vegetables  for  northern  markets. 

Before  the  snow  has  left  the  hills  of  the  North,  fruits  and  vegetables  from 
Florida  are  seen  in  New  York,  Boston,  and  other  large  cities;  a  little  later, 
their  markets  are  supplied  from  the  gardens  about  the  Chesapeake,  and  later 
still,  from  New  Jersey. 

The  southern  part  of  the  state  is  low  and  swampy,  a,r\d  nearly  all  the  in- 
habitants are  in  the  north.  Thousands  of  people  from  the  colder  sections  of  the 
United  States  go  to  Florida  to  spend  the  winter. 

Cities. —  Pensacola  has  the  best  harbor  on  the  Gulf,  and  a  government  navy 
yard  is  located  there.  —  St.  Augustine,  next  to  Santa  Fe,  is  the  oldest  town  in 
the  United  States. — Key  West  is  the  largest  town,  and  exports  sponges,  and 
green  turtles  used  for  soup. 

Tennessee  is  varied  in  its  physical  features.  The  eastern 
part  of  the  state  is  mountainous  and  produces  coal,  iron,  and 
beautiful  marbles.  Middle  Tennessee  is  the  most  populous, 
and  chief  attention  is  given  to  the  raising  of  corn,  tobacco, 
and  stock.     Cotton  is  the  leading  staple  of  West  Tennessee. 

Cities. — Knoxville  and  Chattanooga  are  the  trade  centers  of  East  Tennessee. 
The  latter  has  extensive  iron  works  and  important  railroad  connections.  Nash- 
ville is  the  largest  city  in  the  state,  a  commercial  center,  and  at  the  head  of 
navigation  on  the  Cumberland. — Memphis  is  an  important  river  town. 

Alabama  and  Mississippi  are  leading  cotton  states. 

Cities. —  Mobile  and  Vicksburg  are  important  trading  jjoints,  exporting  cot- 
ton and  other  products,  and  importing  planters'  supplies. 

*  Louisiana,  named  in  honor  of  Louis  XIV.,  of  France,  was 
settled  by  the  Spanish  and  French.  The  descendants  of  the 
latter  are  called  Creoles.  They  form  a  large  part  of  the  popu- 
lation, and  speak  the  French  language.  The  state  has  extensive 
lowlands,  protected  by  levees.  It  produces  nine-tenths  of  the 
sugar  made  in  the  United  States.  Cotton  and  rice  are  the  other 
staples.     Rock-salt  is  the  principal  mineral. 

Louisiana  has  built  and  carefully  watches  and  maintains  1,500  miles  of 
levee  to  keep  the  floods  ofl"  of  its  lowlands,  most  of  which  would  be  worthless 
without  such  protection.  Sometimes  the  levee  gives  way  at  some  point  and 
many  sugar,  rice,  and  cotton  plantations  are  flooded  before  the  break,  or  cre- 
vasse, as  it  is  called,  can  be  stopped. 

New  Orleans  is  the  greatest  cotton  market  in  the  world,  the  chief  sugar 
market  of  the  United  States,  and  the  third  commercial  city  in  the  Union.  Most 
of  the  exports  and  the  imjKjrts  of  the  Lower  Mississippi  states  find  their  way  to 
its  levees. 

Texas  has  a  great  variety  of  surface  and  soil.  The  sur- 
face consists  of  a  low,  sandy  coast  belt,  with  its  thickets  of 
cactus  and  other  thorny  plants,  back  of  which  are  the  rolling, 
fertile  prairies,  and  still  further  inland,  the  plateau  region, 
with  its  rough  but  grassy  benches  and  slopes,  and,  finally,  the 
arid  Llano  Estacado. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland  are  less  than  half  the  size  of  Texas,  and  the  Ger- 
man Empire  would  not  fill  its  boundaries  by  56,000  square  miles. 

Texas  is  the  most  extensive  cattle-raising  state  in  the  Union. 

•study  map  on  opposite  page  at  this  point. 


MAP  STUDIES. 

General  Questions. — How  does  the  scale  of  this  map  comimre  with  that 
of  the  last  section  studied?  In  what  part  of  the  United  States  is  this  section 
situated?  Which  is  the  smallest  state?  What  states  al-e  favorably  situated 
for  foreign  commerce  ?    For  commerce  with  the  Upper  Mississippi  Valley  ?    Is 


the  coast  low  or  high?  Which  is  the  most  elevated  jwrtion  of  the  section? 
What  is  the  general  direction  of  the  streams?  What  is  the  climate?  WTiere 
is  the  population  most  dense?    What  portion  seems  unsettled  ? 

EXERCISES.  —  Locate  and  describe  the  coast  waters,  larffe  rlvors, 
states  and  territory.    Locate  important  towns. 

Sketch  a  map  of  the  section,  as  directed  by  the  teacher. 


80 


THE  SOTJTHEEN  STATES. 


Indian  Territory  is  a  tract  of  country  set  apart  by  the 
United  States  as  a  permanent  home  for  certain  Indian 
tribes.  The  tribes  maintain  schools  and  churches,  culti- 
vate the  soil,  raise  sheep,  horses,  and  cattle,  and  manufac- 
ture many  articles. 

Millions  of  bushels  of  com  are  raised,  besides  wheat, 
hay,  wool,  etc.  Lumber  is  sawed,  cordwood  chopped, 
tanbark  peeled,  maple  sugar  manufactured;  shingles  are 
made,  blankets  and  shawls  woven,  fish  salted,  and  sev- 
eral newspapers  are  printed,  but  their  circulation  is  quite 
small.  Many  of  the  Indians  have  good  farms,  live  in  line 
houses,  and  hire  laborers,  who 
fcV  were  formerly  slaves,  to  culti- 

ik-  vate  their  lauds. 

'       „-'*<?-"■     J- 


Its  horned  cattle,  sheep,        4=. 
and  swine  are  numbered 
by  millions.  Corn,  grass, 
cotton,  and  rice  are  the  most  valuable  vegeta- 
ble products.     Among  its  minerals,  coal,  iron, 
copper,  and  lead  are  the  most  important. 

One  of  its  coal  fields  is  larger  than  the  state  of  Connecticut.  It  has  single 
bodies  of  timber  as  large  as  Massachusetts,  and  its  wheat  and  cotton  lands  to- 
gether cover  an  area  greater  than  all  New  England. 

Galveston  has  an  excellent  harbor,  and  exports  wool,  hides,  and  cotton. 

Arkansas  has  extensive  forests  of  oak,  black  walnut,  hick- 
ory, and  other  valuable  woods.  Corn,  tobacco,  and  cotton  are 
its  great  staples.  There  are  large  quantities  of  hone  or  oil  stone, 
mill  stone,  and  slate  rock  of  superior  quality. 

The  Hot  Springs,  about  60  miles  southeast  of  Little  Rock,  54  in  number,  are 
visited  by  thousands  of  health  seekers.  A  mammoth  hot  spring  in  Fulton  County 
discharges  8,000  barrels  of  water  in  a  minute. 

Little  Rock,  the  largest  city,  stands  on  a  rocky  cliff,  50  feet  high. 


i..^ 


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'^^*^»%"'''^'" 


The  territory  was  selected  ' 

by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment in  1832,  as  a  home  for 
tribes  east  of  the  Mississippi.  The  Creeks,  Choctaws,  Cliickasaws,  and  Cherokees 
were  removed  thither  from  1833  to  1838,  and  the  Seminoles,  from  Florida,  a 
little  later.  There  are  no  townships  or  counties,  but  each  tribe  has  a  large 
tract  of  land,  or  reservation,  which  is  not  divided  into  farms,  but  is  held  as  the 
joint  property  of  the  whole  tribe.  The  Cherokees,  and  some  of  the  other  civil- 
ized tribes,  have  a  legislature,  courts,  and  a  simple  code  of  laws.  They  are  not 
represented  by  a  delegate  in  Congress,  but  their  chiefs  visit  the  President  or 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  to  secure  what  they  desire. 


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CENTRAL   STATES.     ^  H^^^ 

DESCRIPTION. 

Surface. — As  this  produce  grains,  vegetables,  and  fruits.    Machinery  may  be  used 

mi  group  of  states  lies  in  the  to  the  best  advantage  in  raising  and  securing  farm  crops. 

Great  Central  Plain,  the  Forests.— Though  the  timber  of  the  prairie  states  is  mainly 
surface  is  generally  level  confined  to  the  river  bottoms,  to  northern  hill  slopes,  and  to 
or  gently  rolling.  The  occasional  upland  tracts,  the  states,  as  a  whole,  are  well  sup- 
only  elevations  worthy  pHed  with  forests.  Ohio,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri  have 
of  note  are  the  low  moun-  much  valuable  hardwood.  Immense  forests  of  pine,  cedar,  bal- 
tain  ranges  in  Southern  gam,  spruce,  and  tamarack  are  found  in  N'orthern  Minnesota, 
Missouri  and  Southeastern  Ken-  Wisconsin,  and  Michigan. 

tucky;  the  hills  of  Northern  Minerals.— Minerals  are  widely  distributed.    The  coal  fields 

Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minne-     ^^^^j.  ^^^  ^  ^^^^^^^ . 

sota,  and  the  Black  Hills  of  Da-  square  MUes. 

i^„f„  Ulinois about  45,000 

'^^^^-  Missouri "      23,000 

Soil.  — The  section  includes  ^''"f^-, [[    ??'^^ 

Kentucky '       14,000 

the  vast  prairie  region  of  the  Up-  Ohio "     12,000 

per  Mississippi  Valley.    It  is  re-           ^^al.'ZZ'Z'"'"^Z^Z'^ZlZZZlZZ[Z'.[Z'Z    ''      rooo 
markable  for  the  fertility  of  its  Michigan "      7,000 

soil,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  Iron  is  found  in  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Missouri, 

can  be  cultivated  and  made  to     and  Ohio.    Copper  is  abundant  in  the  Lake  Superior  region  in 

81 


86  longitude  "West  U       from  Oresnwich 


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THE  CEXTEAL  STATES. 


83 


Michigan,  and  lead,  in  Missouri,  Illinois.  "Wisconsin,  and  Iowa. 
Granite,  limestone,  sandstone,  and  other  building  stones  are 
found.    Several  of  the  states  hare  valuable  salt  springs. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  many  rapid  streams,  and  the  large 
supply  of  coal  and  wood  afford  excellent  advantages  for  mann- 
focturing.  The  Great  Lakes,  the  3dississippi,  Uie  IGsBonri,  the 
Ohio,  and  other  navigable  rivers  are  routes  for  domestic  trade 
and  also  grand  outlets  to  the  sea. 


HaUmhmprax  the  people  of  these  states  a  fertOeaoil,  accilaittaiba, 
IbSB  atons  of  miiienb,  ao^e  mter-power;  aod  snpeong  wlmilyifareoi- 
BCfce,  and  we  find  Ihea  extcMivcly  tn^fgrA  in  fcrwafc  liuuboiug,  miiriiiR 


Agriculture. — Farming  is  the  leading  industry.  Grain,  hay, 
live  stock,  fibrous  plants,  vegetables,  and  fruits  are  produced  in 
great  abundance.     Millions  of  bushels  of  wheat  are  raised. 

Soine  irf' the  wbest  is  ground  in  wcsteiB 
mills,  bat  n  laige  poctian  is  scat  t»  iswtun 
cities  or  aanss  tbe  sen,  IIm  hi  to  te  made 
intoflooE.  Cbmis^arewidd^giowntkaB 
wheat.  It  is  used  dnefly  tat  feeding  and 
&ttcmng  stodc 

Commerce. — The  com- 
merce of  the  Central 
States,  carried  on  over  the 
water-ways  and  extensive 
railroads,  consists  largely 
in  the  export  of  wheat, 
flour,  corn,  beef,  pork, 
wool,  and  dairy  products. 


Education. — Liberal  provision  is  made  for  educatioiL  Th* 
common  schools  compare  favorably  with  those  of  the  East,  and 
the  numerous  normal  schools,  colleges,  and  universities  receive  a 
generous  and  increasing  support. 

Ohio  ranks  first  among  the  states  of  the  Union  in  its  clip  of 

wool,  and  second  in  its  petroleum,  iron  and  steeL    It  has  more 

than  20,000  manufactories,  the  production  of  iron,  steel,  and  glass 

fabrics  taking  the  lead.    Manufacturing  and  mining  receive  more 

attention  than  in  any  other  state  of  this  group. 

Cities. — Cincinnati,  tfae  "Qaeen  Ctj,"  is  one  of  the  most  important  inland 
cities  of  tbe  United  States.  It  has  a  laige  trade  in  grain,  pork,  and  piorisiMH, 
and  is  a  mann&ctaiing  and  eommerdal  center.  There  are  many  public  libi>- 
ries,  benerolent  institntions,  and  learned  societies.  Spring  Grore  Cemetety  is 
a  beaotafiil  bniial  plaee,  Tinted  hj  thoosands  of  stm^ea. 

Oevelaad,  Hie  "Foiest  (Sty,"  is  one  of  the  fire  principal  ports  on  the  Great 
Lakes.   It  contains  sereial  fine  paAs,  adorned  with  fonn- 
tain^  and  one  paik  kas  an  dt^ant  miiuiimrnt  to  Com- 
1PIBR7.    Lake  Tiew  Ctmataf  eimtaina  a  ^lendid 
Barking  the  lestiag  place  of  IVesidcHtJaaMS 
A.Gaifidd. 

Kentucky  produces  twice  the  tobacco  of 
any  other  state,  and  nearly  half  the 
hemp  raised  in  the  United  StatesL 

It  is  lar«r*-lv  eD?a?ed  in  strx-k  srrow- 


The  chief  impor:  .-,  and  other  mmi&etiired 

aztides. 

Maim&ctiires. — MannCMtarii^  is  pniSDed  on  an  extensive 
sale.  Flour,  hunbo*,  in»  goods,  mtttdmrj,  furniture,  woolen 
and  cotton  lEibries  are  aaMH^  the  leading  artides  produeed. 

People. — The  intiahitants  are  mainly  uudgnuitB  frm  Bev 
fingland  and  the  Middle  States,  or  thdr  descendants;  but  Ger- 
many, SweddB,  ITonray,  Denmaik,  Irdand,  and  other  countries 
<rf  Europe  are  well  represented. 


Beiaibeddei 
UAem- 


UnmviOe  is  Oe  leading  tolMeeoBaiket  of  ttewsrid;  andttbasa 
laqge  tade  in  Sour,  poik,  and  he^p.    Us  BMdicalerilegeB  are  widefy  known. 

Indiana  yiel&  immense  crops  of  Indian  eoni,  wheats  and 
other  grains.  Its  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  are  mamennm.  Bbck 
walnut,  ash,  hickory,  maple;,  beech,  and  the  tulip,  or  whitewood, 
are  amoi^  its  TaloaUe  timber  tieea. 

lafianapoGs  is  aa  iaqMftsBt  caibaad  eenter,  aad  poaMiBes  exedlott  adnB. 

laua  fin  Ibii  aisnafailnii  iif  i 1I  ■iiiiil     It  is  one  of  the  laqgeatcitiesef 

aelMtad  Slates  Mtaitaatedaanavipiilewatet  It  AqaariOisasaCbaAcis 
arosnaadwkeat. 

niincris  ataads  first  among  the  states  in  the  production  of 


BIAPSTUDIESi 


part  oTtte  United 
■  Ite  g^s^?     Bow  d*  Aer 
tattmt  maAaaaeOiBa?  OaAe 

Wbst  states  are  dniaed  bj  Oe  St.  Lamenee? 


nr 


f9ce*t4i  a  map  of 


84 


THE  CENTEAL  STATES. 


wheat  and  Indian  corn.  Stock  raising  and  dairying  are  im- 
portant industries.  Over  fifty  lines  of  railway  thread  the  state 
in  all  directions,  and  these,  with  the  water-ways,  afford  unusual 
commercial  advantages. 

Cities. — Chicago  is  the  largest  interior  city  on  the  continent,  and  the  first 
grain,  cattle,  and  hog  market  in  the  world.  It  has  an  extensive  lumher  trade, 
and  is  also  a  great  manufactnring  center.  There  are  fifteen  miles  of  dockage 
on  the  river  running  through  the  heart  of  the  city.  Its  warehouses  will  hold 
over  20,000,000  bushels  of  grain.  Hundreds  of  freight  and  passenger  trains 
arrive  and  depart  every  day.  There  is  a  system  of  parks  connected  by  lioule- 
vards.  The  water  supply  is  taken  from  Lake  Michigan,  two  miles  from  the 
shore,  and  is  conducted  through  a  tunnel  under  the  bed  of  the  lake. 

Springfield  contains  a  fine  capitol,  built  of  iron,  cut  stone,  and  marble,  at 
a  cost  of  $3,500,000;  and  the  National  Lincoln  Monument,  a  shaft  of  Quincy 
granit«,  with  groups  of  statuary,  erected  to  the  memory  of  Abraham  Lincoln.- — 
Peoria,  Quincy,  and  Bloomington  are  among  the  other  important  cities. 

Michigan  consists  of  two  peninsulas.  The  northern  penin- 
sula is  noted  for  its  mines  of  copper  and  iron,  which  are  among 
the  richest  in  the  world;  the  southern,  for  its  lumber,  grain, 
salt,  and  fruit. 

Salt  is  manufactured  in  the  vicinity  of  Saginajv  Bay.     In  1880,  the  product 
of  the  wells  was  over  12,000,000  bushels,  the  amount  pro- 
duced exceeding  that  of  any  other  state. 

The  southwestern  part  of  the  state,  along  Lake  Michigan, 
is  a  famous  fruit  region,  supplying  peaches,  pears,  and  apples 
for  shipment  to  the  whole  Northwest.  The  climate  is  modi- 
fied by  the  lake,  and  the  fruit  buds  are  seldom  injured  by 
the  winter  or  late  spring  frosts. 

Cities.— Detroit,  the  "City  of  the  Straits,"  carries  on 
a  large  trade  with  Canada.     It  has  copper  and 
iron  smelting  works,  flour  and  saw  mills,  and 
other  manufactories. 

Detroit  is  one  of  the  oldest 
towns  in  the  country.  It  was 
the  site  of  Indian  villages  when 
first  visited  by  the  French  in 
1610.  The  first  white  settle- 
ment was  made  in  1701,  when 
a  fort  was  built.  Three  dif- 
ferent sovereigns  have  claimed 
itsallegisHice.  Ithastwicebeen 
besieged  by  Indians,  once  cap- 
tured in  war,  once  tobiUy  de- 
stroyed by  fire.  It  has  been 
the  scene  of  one  surrender,  fifty 
pitched  battles,  and  twelve 
bloody  massacres. 

Grand  Rapids,  the  second 
city  in  size,  is  noted  for  its 
lumber  trade  and  water-jKiwer. — Ann  Arbor  is  the  seat  of  Michigan  University, 
one  of  the  most  popular  institutions  in  the  West. 

^A^isconsin  has  many  beautiful  lakes  and  waterfalls.  Lum- 
bering is  the  leading  occupation  in  the  forest  region  of  the 
north;  grain  and  dairy  farming  receive  chief  attention  on  the 
prairies  of  the  south.  Lead  and  zinc  are  mined  in  the  south- 
west. Fishing  is  also  an  important  branch  of  business  on  the 
shores  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Whitefish  and  trout  are  the  prin- 
cipal varieties  caught. 

Cities. — Milwaukee  has  a  good  harbor,  and  is  one  of  the  five  great  lake 
ports.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  grain  and  lumber.  Wheat  is  the  chief  com- 
mercial staple. — Madison  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  and  con- 
tains one  of  the  finest  capitol  buildings  in  the  West. 


*  Missouri  has  large  agricultural  and  mineral  resources,  anc 
its  central  position  and  magnificent  water-ways  give  it  great 
commercial  advantages.  It  produces  more  lead  than  all  other 
states  of  the  Union,  Coal  beds  cover  one-third  of  its  area,  and 
iron,  in  some  form,  is  found  in  every  county.  Zinc  and  nickel, 
the  latter  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coins,  are  important  i^rod- 
ucts.  Iron,  steel,  glass,  zinc,  and  lead  are  extensively  manufac- 
tured. 

Iron  Mountain,  situated  eighty  miles  southwest  of  St.  Louis,  is  228  feet 
high,  and  covers  500  acres.  It  consists  chiefly  of  ore,  which  yields  55  or  60 
per  cent  of  excellent  iron.     Pilot  Knob  is  another  mountain  of  ore. 

Cities. — St.  Louis  is  one  of  the  great  cities  of  the  United  States.  It  has 
over  6,000  miles  of  direct  river  navigation,  and  its  river  commerce  is  carried  on 
by  more  than  4,000  steamers  and  barges.  Its  trade  by  rail  is  also  very  large. 
Wheat  is  shipped  to  Europe  by  way  of  New  Orleans.  The  city  has  one  of 
the  hirgest  rolling  mills  for  steel  rails  in  the  world,  and  its  flouring  mills  and 
meat-packing  establishments  are  very  extensive. 

Kansas  City  is  a  rapidly  growing  and  important  railroad  center.  It  is  a 
noted  live  stock  market,  and  is  largely  engaged  in  beef  and  pork  packing,  and 
in  handling  grain. 

Kansas   is  an  undulating  plain,  sloping  gently  from  the 
foot-hills  of  the  Eocky  Mountains  to  the  eastern 
boundary.    The  w^estern  part  of  the  state  lies  in 
the  pasture  region,  and  stock  raising  is  there 
the  great  industry.    The  eastern  portion  is  well 
adapted  to  grain  raising,  or  mixed  farming,  and 
immense  crops  of  corn  and  wheat 
are  produced.     Coal  mining  is  an 
important  industry. 

Cities — Leavenworth  is  the  chief  manu- 
factnring center.  —  Lawrence 
is  the  seat  of  the  State  Uni- 
versity. 

Iowa  is  a  prairie  state, 
with  a  fertile  soil,  and  a 
surface  so  level  and  free 
from  stones  that  agri- 
cultural machinery  can 
be  used  almost  every- 
where to  the  best  advan- 
tage. 

Grain  growing,  stock 
raising,  and  dairying  are  the  chief  industries.  In  the  produc- 
tion of  corn  Iowa  is  the  second  state  in  the  Union,  and  in  the 
amount  and  quality  of  its  butter  and  cheese  it  takes  very  high 
rank.  The  abundant  supply  of  coal  makes  cheap  fuel  and  en- 
courages manufacturing. 

Cities. —  Des  Moines,  Dubuque,  Davenport,  Burlington,  and  Council  Blu£& 
are  railroad  centers  and  among  the  leading  cities. 

Nebraska  resembles  Kansas  in  its  physical  features.  The 
soil  of  the  Missouri  bottoms  and  tlfe  whole  region  south  of  the 
Platte  and  east  of  the  99th  meridian  is  very  fertile  and  well 
adapted  to  grain  and  grass.     The  western  portion  of  the  state 

*  study  map  on  opposite  page  at  this  point. 


MAP  STUDIES. 

General  Questions.— In  what  part  of  the  United  States  does  this  section 
lie?  Which  is  the  largest  state?  Tlie  smallest?  What  states  lie  on  the  Missis- 
sippi? The  Missouri?  What  parts  of  the  section  are  most  hilly?  What  por- 
tion has  the  greatest  number  of  lakes?  State  whether  the  streams  are  numerous, 
fuid  give  their  general  direction.  Which  state  is  drained  by  three  river  systems? 


What  is  the  general  character  of  the  surface?  What  portions  are  still  thinly 
peopled?  What  states  have  the  best  natural  commercial  advantages?  What 
parallel  of  latitude  on  the  north?  On  the  south?  ■\\^lat  is  the  climate?  Is 
it  moist  or  dry,  as  compared  with  states  on  the  seaboard? 

EXERCISES.  — Locate  and  describe  mountains,  lakes,  great  rivers, 
states.    Locate  capitals,  and  other  important  cities. 

Sketch  a,  map  of  tt«  section,  as  the  teacher  may  direct. 


100  I/jngitude  TVest       98      from  Greenwich    SJ 


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86 


THE  CENTRAL  STATES. 


is  poorly  watered,  and  is  best 
suited  to  grazing.     The  region 
of  the  Bad  Lands,  in  the  north- 
west, is  entirely  worthless. 
There  is  but  a  limited  supply  of 
limber,  and  that  is  found  along  the  streams. 
Tree  planting  has  received  much  attention, 
and  the  prairies  have  been  greatly  beautified 
by  groves. 

Cities.— Lincoln  is  the  seat  of  the  State  University.— 
Omaha,  the  metropolis,  is  favorably  situated  for  trade  by 
river  and  rail. 

South  Dakota  has  a  large  area  of  fine  farming  and  grazing 

lands.     Although  its  resources  are  but  partially  developed,  the 

state  produces  vast  quantities  of  wheat,  corn,  oats,  barley,  and 

flax.   Stock  raising  is  an  important  and  growing  industry.    Gold, 

silver,  tin,  and  other  metals  abound,  and  are  extensively  mined, 

in  the  Black  Hills.     Lignite  coal  fields  are  extensive  here. 

Cities.— Pierre,  the  capital;  Sioux  Falls,  Huron,  Mitchell,  Watertown, 
Yankton,  and  Deadwood  are  among  the  chief  towns. 

North  Dakota  includes  much  of  the  famed  Red  River  Valley, 
where  are  some  of  the  largest  wheat  farms  in  the  world.  Wheat 
is  the  great  staple,  but  other  grains  are  produced.  The  western 
portion  of  the  state  is  a  part  of  the  "Great  Plains,"  and  is  best 
suited  to  grazing.  Lignite  coal  is  found  in  large  quantities  in 
the  western  part  of  the  state. 

Cities.— Bismarck,  the  capital;  Fargo,  Grand  Forks,  Jamestown,  and  Graf- 
ton are  among  the  leading  towns. 


Minnesota  is  famed  for  its  beautiful  lakes,  its  river  scenery, 
its  park-like  prairies,  its  bracing  air  and  healthful  climate. 

Agriculture  is  the  great  industry  on  the  prairies  of  the  south 
and  west.  Stock  raising  and  dairying  are  receiving  much  at- 
tention, and  improved  breeds  of  horses,  horned  cattle,  sheep, 
and  swine  are  already  introduced.  Flax  is  cultivated  in  the 
southwest,  and  wheat  is  the  staple  of  the  Red  River  Valley. 
Lumbering  is  extensively  carried  on  in  the  forests  of  the  north. 
The  iron  ores  of  the  Vermillion  Lake  region  are  unsurpassed  for 
richness,  and  large  quantities  are  being  mined. 

Cities. — St.  Paul,  the  capital  of  the  state,  is  a  great  railroad  center.  It  has 
a  very  extensive  wholesale  trade  and  rapidly  increasing  manufactures. 

Minneapolis  is  the  leading  manufacturing  city  of  the  Northwest.  It  con- 
tains some  of  the  largest  flouring  mills  in  the  world. 

Duluth,  on  Lake  Superior,  is  becoming  a  great  commercial  center.  It  ex- 
ports wheat,  and  vast  quantities  of  coal  are  brought  to  its  docks  from  eastern 
mines. 


SALMOM  CANNING,  WASHINGTON  rZff. 


THE  PACIFIC  STATES 
DESCRIPTION. 

This  section  includes  about  one-third  of  the  territory  of  the 

United  States.     It  is  famed  for  its  mild  climate,  the  grandeur  of 

its  physical  features,  and  the  richness  of  its  gold  and  silver  mines. 

People. — Its  white  population  is  mostly  made  up  of  immigrants 

from  the  older  states.     There  are  many  uncivilized  Indian  tribes,  and  some 

Chinese  are  found,  mainly  in  California. 

Industries. — As  we  have  learned,  the  leading  occupations  are  mining, 
stock  raising,  lumbering,  fruit,  and  grain  growing. 

Minerals. — The  precious  metals  are  widely  distributed  throughout  the  monn- 

other  industries.  Every  state  and 
territory  has  its  gold  or  silver,  or  both.  Coal,  iron,  lead,  copper,  and  other  min- 
erals are  also  found,  and,  in  many  localities,  mines  are  worked  with  profit. 

Gold  occurs  in  veins  of  quartz  penetrating  the  rocks,  or  in  gravel  beds,  where  it  has  been  carried 
by  rivers  or  floods.  Where  it  occurs  in  veins,  the  quartz  holding  it  must  be  crushed  to  a  fine  powder 
by  powerful  machinery  in  order  to  release  the  gold.  Stamp  mills  are  used  in  crushing,  the  large  masses 
being  first  broken  to  the  size  of  one's  fist  in  a  rock-breaker.  A  strong  current  of  water,  passed  over  the 
pulverized  quartz,  carries  off  the  lighter  particles  of  rock,  leaving  the  particles  of  gold  behind. 

When  the  gold  is  found  in  gravel  it  is  often  beneath  deep  banks  of  earth  and  rock,  which  must  be 
removed.  Water  is  conveyed  in  ditches  for  many  miles  to  the  hills  al)ove  the  deposits,  from  whence 
it  is  carried  in  strong  iron  pipes  to  the  gravel  beds,  which  are  sometimes  300,  or  even  500,  feet  below. 
The  powerful  stream  of  water  is  directed  against  the  bank  through  nozzles  attached  to  the  iron  pipes. 

The  force  of  the  water  wears  away  and  removes  earth  and  stones,  carrying  them  along  sluices  pre- 
pared for  the  purpose.  The  gold  is  left  in  the  bottom  of  the  sluices,  the  lighter  earth  and  stones  being 
'  swept  along.  This  is  hydraulic  mining.  The  method  first  spoken  of  is  quartz  mining.  Both  processes 
are  very  expensive  and  require  great  skill. 

Stock  raising  ranks  next  to  mining  in  importance.  The  Great  Plains,  pla- 
teaus, mountain  slopes,  and  valleys  pasture  millions  of  horned  cattle  and  sheep, 
and  every  year  increases  the  number.  Countless  trains  of  live  stock  and  vast 
quantities  of  wool  are  sent  to  eastern  markets. 


Hi      Longitude  "West  110         from   Ureeawicli  loc 


THE  PACIFIC  STATES   AND  TEEEITOEIES. 


89 


The  winters  are  so  mild  that  most  oi  the  cattle  go  through  without  the  care 
and  shelter  required  furtlier  east.  The  grass  is  cured  right  where  it  stands, 
the  cattle  feeding  upon  it  instead  of  hay  cut  in  the  usual  way. 

The  other  industries  named  are  confined  to  narrower  limits. 
Over  a  very  large  portion  of  this  section  irrigation  is  neces- 
sary to  successful  tillage.  The  farmer,  the  gardener,  and  the 
fruit  grower  alike  depend  on  mouptain  streams  for  a  supply 
of  water  to  mature  their  crops.  In  many  localities  no  such 
streams  are  found  and  the  soil  cannot  be  cultivated. 

Irrigating  canals,  or  ditches,  are  often  many  miles  in  length,  and  the  cost 
of  digging  and  maintaining  them  is  sometimes  very  great,  so  that  they  are  usu- 
ally dug  and  controlled  by  wealthy  companies,  and  the  water  is  leased  to  land 
owners  along  the  route,  each  paying  according  to  the  (juantity  used.  It  is  car- 
ried over  the  fields  in  small  channels  leading  out  from  the  main  canal. 

Facilities  for  Trade. — There  are  few  navigable  streams,  and 
most  of  the  domestic  trade  is  by  rail.  Places  away  from  rail- 
roads usually  receive  their  supplies  by  wagon  or  mule  trains 
from  the  nearest  station.  The  five  great  trunk  lines  of  rail- 
way crossing  the  continent  are  rapidly  extending  their  branches 
in  all  directions. 

Education. —  Education  is  receiving  much  attention  where- 
ever  the  population  is  sufficiently  dense. 

Montana  is  a  mountain  territory,  with  some  fine  valleys. 
Bunch  grass,  so  excellent  for  cattle,  covers  the  hillsides  and 
plains,  and  grazing  is  a  large  and  profitable  industry.  There 
are  gold,  silver,  iron,  and  copper  deposits,  and  its  mines  are  a 
chief  source  of  wealth. 

Cities. —  Helena  and  Butte  City  are  trade  centers  of  rich  raining  districts. 

Wyoming  is  said  to  have  35,000,000  acres  of  fine  stock 

lands.      Laramie  Plains,  an  excellent  grazing  region  of  great 

extent,  are  from  5,000  to  6,000  feet  above  the  sea.     Mineral 

resources  are  abundant.    Coal  is  mined  to  supply  the  railroads, 

and  is  shipped  to  settlements  east  and  west. 

Cities. —  Cheyenne  is  a  distributing  point,  and  Laramie  City  is  the  center 
of  a  great  stock-i-aisiug  region. 

Yellowstone  National  Park  is  a  district  mainly  in  Wyoming,  having  an  area 
of  about  3,fiOO  square  miles,  "set  apart  by  Congress  as  a  perpetual  reservation 
for  the  benefit  and  instruction  of  mankind."  Among  the  wonders  are  rugged 
mountains,  deep  caiions,  rushing  streams,  waterfalls,  hot  springs,  and  geysers. 

Colorado,  the  "Centennial  State,"  is  noted  for  its  numerous 
lofty  mountain  peaks,  two  hundred  of  which  are  visible  from 
Mount  Lincoln.  "Walled  in  by  mountains  are  basin-shaped  pla- 
teaus, called  parks,  once  the  bed  of  lakes,  whose  valleys  are 
very  fertile. 

Irrigation  brings  abundant  crops.  Some  of  the  irrigating  canals  are  very 
large  and  long.     One  is  fifty-four  and  another  thirty-three  miles  in  length. 

Mining,  smelting,  and  reducing  the  precions  and  other  met- 
als are  the  largest  industries.  Wool  growing  and  stock  raising 
receive  great  attention. 

Cities. — Denver  is  5,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  commands  a  view  of  Pike's, 
Long's,  and  other  noted  snow-capped  peaks.  The  city  contains  many  palatial 
residences. —  Leadville  is  a  great  mining  center. 


New  Mexico  was  settled  by  the  Spaniards  in  1550.  The 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  of  Indian  and  Spanish  parentage,  a  mixed 
race  speaking  the  Spanish  language.  As  much  of  the  country 
is  an  arid  plateau,  incapable  of  irrigation,  most  of  the  settlers 
are  found  along  the  valleys  of  the  Eio  Grande,  whose  waters 
are  all  drawn  off  to  moisten  the  parched  fields  during  the  dry 
season.  The  precious  metals  are  abundant,  but  the  mineral  re- 
sources are  undeveloped.    Wool  growing  is  a  favorite  pursuit. 

Cities. —  Las  Vegas  is  famed  for  its  hot  mineral  springs.  It  exports  large 
quantities  of  wool.  —  Santa  Fe  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  United  States. 

Arizona  has  a  hot  and  dry  climate,  especially  in  the  south. 
Yuma  has  had  in  a  single  summer  100  days  when  the  ther- 
mometer stood  above  100°  in  the  shade,  and  Tucson  51  days. 
Minin'gand  wool  growing  are  leading  industries.  The  Navajo 
Indians  keep  large  numbers  of  sheep. 

Indiau  tribes,  Aztec  or  Toltec,  occupied  the  country  long  ago,  and  reared 
walled  towns  of  which  ruins  remain.  Jesuit  missionaries  were  here  before 
1600.     Arizona  and  New  Mexico  belonged  to  Mexico  until  1848. 

Prescott  is  in  a  rich  mining  region. 

Utah  received  its  name  from  the  TJtes,  a  tribe  of  Indians 

that  formerly  lived  in  the  territory.     It  is  now  chiefly  settled 

by  people  who  belong  to  a  religious  sect  called  Mormons.    The 

territory  is  very  rich  in  iron,  as  well  as  lead  and  the  precious 

metals.     Little  land  can  be  cultivated,  but  excellent  crops  are 

raised  on  the  fertile  portions.     Many  articles  are  manufactured 

for  home  consumption,  and  the  mineral  resources  are  being 

rapidly  developed. 

Grejt  Salt  Lake  is  about  100  miles  long  and  50  broad.  Its  waters  contain 
so  much  salt  that  no  fish  can  live  in  them.  Large  quantities  of  salt  are  pro- 
duced by  evaporation. 

Salt  Lake  City  is  the  metropolis.  It  has  broad  streets  watered  by  moun- 
tain streams,  beautiful  shade  and  fruit  trees,  a  fine  museum,  and  a  tabernacle, 
or  place  of  worship,  that  cost  |500,000,  and  will  seat  8,000  people. 

Idaho  has  gold  or  silver  in  every  county  of  the  territory. 

The  river  valleys  are  fertile,  but  other  portions  of  the  country 

are  better  adapted  to  grazing  than  tillage.     Mining  and  stock 

raising  receive  most  attention. 

Boise  City  derives  its  support  from  rich  placer  and  quartz  mines  in  the 
mountain  districts.     Water  for  irrigation  is  carried  to  every  lot  in  the  town. 

Washington  has  some  of  the  finest  harbors  and  roadsteads 
in  the  world,  and  its  forests  are  the  best  in  the  United  States. 
Bituminous  coal  is  mined  at  several  points.  Large  crops  of 
wheat,  vegetables,  and  fruits  are  raised.  Most  of  the  eastern 
part  is  well  adapted  to  grazing.  The  rapid  streams  afford  much 
water-power.     Salmon  and  other  food  fishes  are  abundant. 

Puget  Sound,  with  its  bays  and  inlets,  covers  some  2,000 

square  miles,  and  furnishes  the  safest  and  best  harbors  on  the 

Pacific  coast.     Lumber,  wheat,  coal,  fish,  and  fruit  are  exported 

from  its  wharves. 

Walla  Walla,  the  largest  town,  is  in  the  midst  of  a  fine  agricultural 
country. 


MAP  STUDIES. 

General  Questions. —  In  what  part  of  the  United  States  is  this  division 
situated  ?  Compare  the  scale  of  the  map  with  the  scales  of  the  other  sections. 
In  what  physical  region  of  North  America  does  it  lie  ?  How  many  states  and 
how  many  territories  in  the  group  ?  Mention  the  largest  state  and  the  largest 
territory.  What  divisions  are  washed  by  the  Pacific?  How  many  deep  in- 
dentations along  the  coast?  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  surface? 
Does  the  surface  indicate  sluggish  or  rapid  streams? 

Are  the  streams  more  or  less  numerous  than  in  other  sections  of  the  United 


States  ?  Into  how  many  great  bodies  of  water  do  the  rivets  of  the  section  flo w  ? 
Point  out  the  principal  slopes  as  indicated  by  the  rivers  ?  What  is  the  latitude 
of  San  Francisco  ?  Los  Angeles?  Of  the  northern  boundary  ?  Which  is  fur- 
ther north,  Los  Angeles  or  St.  Louis  ?  San  Francisco  or  Chicago  ?  Salem  or 
St.  Paul  ?  What  is  the  climate  of  the  section?  Does  the  population  seem 
dense  or  thin  ? 

EXERCISES.— Locate  and  describe  the  coast  waters,  chief  mountains, 
lakes,  great  rivers,  states  and  territories.  Locate  capitals  and  other  im- 
portant towns. 

Sketch  a  map  of  the  section,  as  the  teacher  directs. 


90 


THE  PACIFIC  STATES  AND  TEEEITORIES. 


Mines  of  gold,  silver,  quicksilver,  and  other  metals  are  pro-     the  year  1882  the  total  yield  of  that  metal  was  $1,155,000,000. 
ductive.     From  the  discovery  of  gold  iu  1848  to  the  close  of     Quicksilver  comes  from  the  mountains  near  the  coast. 


THE  PACIFIC  STATES  AND  TEREITORIES 


91 


California  manufactures  large  quantities  of  mining  and  agri- 
cultural machinery,  lumber,  leather,  iron  goods,  woolens,  flour, 
glass,  and  hundreds  of  articles  besides,  used  by  the  people  of  the 
Pacific  slope. 

The  common  schools  are  well  sustained,  and  teachers  are 
better  paid  than  in  almost  any  other  state.  Normal  schools, 
colleges,  and  other  institutions  for  higher  education  are  in  suc- 
cessful operation.  An  observatory,  largely  endowed  by  James 
Lick,  a  wealthy  citizen,  contains  one  of  the  finest  telescopes  in 
the  world. 

Cities. — San  Francisco  is  the  largest  seaport  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  Cape 
Horn  to  Asia.  Lines  of  ocean  steamers  ply  to  Panama,  Mexico,  Oregon,  Wash- 
ington, Ala.ska,  Australia,  Honolnla,  China,  and  Japan,  and  a  large  trade  is  car- 
ried on  over  the  transcontinental  railways.  Its  manufactures  are  extensive  and 
varied.  The  fine  private  residences,  grand  hotels,  extensive  parks,  and  beauti- 
ful bay  are  attractive  features. 

Sacramento  has  an  extensive  trade  with  the  mining  and  agricultural  districts. 
— Oakland  is  noted  for  its  beautiful  dwellings  and  gardens. —  Los  Angeles  is  a 
popular  resort. 

Oregon  has  many  fertile  valleys,  some  of  which  are  large  and 
unusually  productive.  The  Willamette  Valley  is  the  most  noted 
and  contains  the  greater  part  of  the  population.  It  is  150  miles 
in  length  and  from  30  to  60  miles  in  width.  Middle  Oregon  is  a 
rolling  table-land,  dry  and  arid.  In  the  fertile  sections  wheat  of 
fine  quality  and  excellent  apples  and  other  fruits  are  grown  in 
abundance.    The  wool  clip  is  large. 


The  forests  of  pines,  firs,  cedars,  and  spruces,  near  the  coast, 

supply  much  lumber  and  the  finest  of  masts  and  spars.     The 

salmon  fisheries  are  of  great  commercial  importance. 

Portland  is  the  commercial  center.  Lines  of  steamers  connect  it  with  San 
Francisco,  Puget  Sound,  and  Alaska.  Grain,  flour,  wool,  and  lumber  are 
among  its  exports. 

Nevada  is  a  highland  state  and  is  noted  for  the  dryness 
of  its  climate  and  the  richness  of  its  silver  mines,  which  yield 
one-fifth  of  all  the  silver  produced  in  the  United  States.  Some 
of  its  valleys  are  fertile,  but  it  can  never  become  an  agricul- 
tural state.  Wool  growing  and  stock  raising  receive  some  at- 
tention. The  number  of  mines  and  quartz  mills  in  operation 
is  very  large,  and  mining  overshadows  all  other  industries. 

Virginia  City,  6,000  feet  above  the  se.a,  is  a  depot  for  miners'  supplies.  It 
is  built  on  the  site  of  the  Comstock  Lode,  a  vein  of  gold  and  silver  bearing  rock 
that  has  produced  more  bullion  than  any  other  mine  in  the  world.  Some  of 
the  shafts  in  this  lode  are  3,200  feet  deep. 

Alaska  is  equal  in  area  to  one-sixth  of  the  United  States, 
or  to  nearly  twelve  states  the  size  of  New  York.  Its  coast  is 
lined  with  islands,  a  single  group  numbering  1,100.  It  is  re- 
markable for  its  fur-bearing  animals,  and  for  the  food  fishes 
that  teem  in  its  bays  and  rivers. 

Millions  of  fur  seals  are  found  on  the  islands  in  summer,  and  the  fox,  beaver, 
and  marten  alx)und  on  the  mainland.  Halibut,  salmon,  cod,  herring,  and 
mackerel  are  the  most  valuable  fishes.  Forests  of  spruce,  hemlock,  and  yellow 
cedar  stretch  far  to  the  north,  and  coal  is  found  in  many  places.  The  popula- 
tion consists  of  Indians,  numbering  about  30,000,  and  a  few  whites. 


AEEA  AND  POPULATION   OF  THE  STATES  AND  TEERITORIES   OF  THE 

UNITED   STATES. 

COMPILED  FROM  U.  S.  CENSUS  AND  SPOFFORD'S  AMERICAN  ALMANAC. 


STATES. 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

*Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

*Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

*Iowa 

♦Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland , 

♦Massachusetts . .. 

Michigan 

♦Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

♦Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina. , 
tNorth  Dakota... 

Ohio 


Square  Miles. 


52,250 

53,850 

158,360 

103,925 

4,990 

2,050 

58,680 

59.475 

56,650 

36,350 

56,025 

82,080 

40,400 

48,720 

33,040 

12,210 

8,315 

58,915 

83,365 

46,810 

69,415 

146,080 

76,855 

110,700 

9,305 

7,815 

49,170 

52,250 

70,956 

41,060 


Population  1880. 


1,262,505 

802,525 

864,694 

243,910 

622,700 

146,608 

342,617 

1,542,180 

3,077,871 

1,978,301 

1,753,980 

1,268,562 

1,648,690 

939,946 

648,936 

934,943 

1,941,465 

1,636,937 

1,117,798 

1,131,597 

2,168,380 

39,159 

740,645 

62,266 

346,991 

1,131,116 

5,082,871 

1,399,750 

175,000 

3,198,062 


STATES. 


Oregon 

Pennsylvania... 
♦Rhode  Island.... 

South  Carolina. 
tSonth  Dakota... 

Tennessee 

Texas.. 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia.. 
♦Wisconsin 


TEEEITOKIES. 


Arizona 

♦Columbia  District 

Idaho 

♦New  Mexico 

Utah 

Wyoming 

Alaska 

Indian  Territory 

Other  Agency  Indians. 

Outside  Indians 


United  States... 


Square  Miles. 


96,030 

45,215 

1,250 

30,570 

78,398 

42,050 

265,780 

9,565 

42,450 

69,180 

24,780 

56,040 


Square  Miles. 


113,020 
70 

84,800 
122,580 

84,970 

97,890 
577,390 

64,690 


3,602,990 


Population  1880. 


174,768 

4,282,891 

304,284 

995,577 

300,000 

1,542,359 

1,591,749 

332,286 

1,512,565 

75,116 

618,457 

1,563,423 


Population  1880. 


40,440 

203,459 

32,610 

131,985 

143,963 

20,789 

33,426 

79,024 

164,503 

64,321 


50,497,057 


Questions  and  Exercises. —  How  many  states  are  larger  than  your  state? 
How  many  are  smaller?  Which  is  the  largest  territory?  How  many  states  of 
the  size  of  Iowa  might  be  carved  out  of  all  the  territories?  Which  state  has 
the  largest  number  of  inhabitant!,  to  the  square  mile?  Name  the  four  states 
that  stand  next  in  order.  Classify  the  states  and  territories  according  to  their 
leading  industries;  as,  agricultural,  mining,  manufacturing.     Group  those  states 


and  territories  which  have  large  coal  fields;  those  which  have  extensive  forests; 
those  which  are  engaged  in  stock  raising;  in  cotton  growing.  How  does  life  in 
an  agricultural  community  diflTer  from  life  in  a  manufacturing,  or  a  mining 
region?  Take  an  imaginary  journey  to  New  England,  the  Gulf  States,  the  great 
plains,  the  mining  districts,  and  write  an  account  of  what  you  see. 
*  Census  of  1885.  f  Estimated. 


PACIFIC    OR  120°  MERIDIAN  TI-ME 


MOUNTAIN  OR  105°  MERIDIAN  TIME 


CENTR, 


MAP  STUDIES. 


Locate  the  several  industrial  regions  of  the  United  States.  Take  tne  sections  in  order  and 
state  why  agriculture  is  a  leading  pursuit  in  one,  lumbering  in  another,  and  so  on. 

Which  half  of  the  country  hag  nearly  all  the  navigable  rivers?  What  section  has  the  longest 
navigable  rivers?  Trace  the  longest  inland  route  over  which  a  steamer  may  sail.  Name  the 
navigable  rivers  of  the  Pacific  Highland  region.  Why  are  the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  coast  navi- 
gable for  80  short  a  distance  ? 

Sketch  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  locate  the  chief  commercial  ports.  Sketch 
the  Mississippi  system  of  rivers.and  locate  the  great  trade  centers.  Sketch  the  Pacific  coast,  with 
its  navigable  rivers,  and  locate  commercial  centers.  Sketch  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  locate  the 
great  seaports. 

What  sections  of  the  country  are  best  supplied  with  railroads?    How  many  great  trunk  lines 


THE  CLOCK  DIALS  SHOW  THE  MEAN  TIME  ON  THE  Ml 

of  railway  reach  the  Pacific  coast?  Through  what  states  and  territories  does  each  pass,  an( 
where  does  each  terminate?  Mention  the  most  important  railroad  centers  in  New  England.  Ii 
the  Middle  States.  In  each  of  the  other  sections  of  the  United  States.  How  many  of  these  centen 
are  seaports?  How  many  are  lake  ports?  Howmany  are  on  navigable  rivers?  What  ones  are  no 
on  any  water  route?  What  great  inland  cities  are  connecte<l  with  the  sea  by  river  or  lake  routes' 

Trace  a  cargo  of  Dakota  wheat  or  Minncajwlis  flour  from  Puluth  by  an  all-water  route  t( 
Quebec  and  Liverpool.  Trace  an  all-water  route  from  Duluth  to  Brooklyn.  Trace  a  ship  load  o 
pork,  beef,  or  breadstufFs  from  Chicago  to  New  York  by  water.  By  rail.  Over  what  water-wayf 
may  a  cargo  of  iron  or  glas.s  from  Pittsbui^b  reach  a  dealer  in  St.  Paul?  Trace  a  route  for  a  con 
signment  of  fruit  from  1a)%  Angeles  to  St.  Louis.  Trace  a  route  for  a  pleasure  party  from  Boston 
to  San  Francisco  by  rail  and  by  water. 

Trace  a  cargo  of  cotton  or  sugar  from  New  Orleans  to  Boston  by  rail  and  by  water.  Over  jvhal 
route  may  a  cODsignment  of  salmon  from  Oregon  reach  Minneapolis  or  St.  Paul?    What  citiei 


Divisiuii  of  Stau  iard  Time  tl  ua  *  *  *  *  * 


lAjngitufle  "West 


from  W'nshiiigton 


«a  lANS  AS  COMPARED  WITH  GREENWICH  MEAN  NOON. 


(-■xtensively  engaged  in  foreign  commerce?  Over  what  routes  may  a  cargo  of  sugar  froia 
U'est  Indies  reach  a  dealer  in  Chicago?  Over  what  routes  may  the  live  stoclc  of  the  Rocky 
uutain  region  reach  Kansas  City?    Chicago?    Cincinnati?    St.  Paul?* 


Years  ago,  if  a  thousand  railroad  conductors  from  all  parts  of  the  country  had  met  at  Chicago, 

their  watches  would  have  shown  a  great  diversity  of  time.   This  confusion  in  time  was  a  matter 

of  much  inconvenience  to  the  railroads  and  to  the  public.    To  obviate  the  difficulty,  In  Novem- 

Standard  Time.—  As  we  have  learned,  when  it  is  noon  on  any  given  meridian  it  is  1  o'clock       ber,  1883,  time  standards  were  adopted  for  the  United  States  and  Canada.    The  governing  me- 


15°  east  of  that  meridian  and  11  o'clock  IS'^  west.  This  difference  in  time  is  indicated  by  theclock 
lials  seen  on  the  map.  When  it  is  noon  at  the  Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich,  near  London,  it 
acks  five  hours  of  noon  at  all  places  on  the  meridian  75°  west.  In  other  words,  when  the  clock 
it  Greenwich  strikes  12  M.  the  clock  on  the  75th  meridian  strikes  7  a.  m.;  on  the  90th  meridian, 
J  A.  M.;  on  the  105th,  5  A.  M.;  on  the  120th,  4  A.  M.  A  diflference  of  one  degree  makes  a  difference 
)f  four  minutes  in  time;  and  a  watch  set  for  any  meridian  will  be  too  fast  when  carried  west  and 
.00  slow  when  carried  east. 

•  Total  length  of  completed  railroad  in  United  States,  1886, 128,967  miles;  under  construction, 
17,733  miles. 


ridians  are  60°,  75°,  90°,  105°  and  120°  west  from  Greenwich.  The  United  States  is  divided  into 
four  belts,  known  as  the  Eastern,  Central,  Mountain,  and  Pacific.  The  eastern  and  western  limita 
of  the  several  belts  are  shown  by  the  irregular  dotted  lines  on  the  map. 

All  places  in  the  central  belt  have  the  time  of  the  90th  meridian.  All  places  in  the  mountain 
belt  have  the  time  of  the  105th  meridian,  which  is  one  hour  later.  All  places  in  the  eastern  belt 
have  the  time  of  the  7.^th  meridian,  which  is  one  hour  earlier  than  the  time  of  the  central  belt. 
In  this  way  the  time  for  each  belt  is  made  uniform,  and  a  watch  set  for  a  given  belt  is  one  hour 
slower  than  a  watch  set  for  the  next  belt  east,  and  one  hour  faster  than  a  watch  set  for  the  next 
belt  west,  so  that  one  who  has  correct  time  for  any  belt  may  know  the  exact  time  in  any  other  beUa 


DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


DESCRIPTION. 

Area. — The  Dominion  of  Canada  includes  all  that  part  of 
North  America  north  of  the  United  States  except  Alaska,  which 
belongs  to  the  United  States,  and  Newfoundland,  which,  with 
Labrador,  forms  a  British  province. 

People. — Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  of  English  descent, 
but  the  French  element  predominates  in  the  province  of  Que- 
bec. Indians  are  thinly  scattered  over  all  the  provinces,  but 
are  found  chiefly  in  the  west. 

Education. — A  free  education  is  afforded  in  the  common 
and  grammar  schools,  and  there  are  colleges  and  universities, 
where  both  sexes  can  secure  a  higher  education  at  a  trifling 
cost.  In  most  provinces  each  public  school  receives  from  the 
government  of  the  province  an  annual  grant,  based  on  the  aver- 
age attendance. 

Government. — The  government  is  similar  to  that  of  Great 
Britain,  to  which  the  country  belongs.  The  Governor  General 
represents  the  English  sovereign,  by  whom  he  is  appointed. 
His  advisers,  or  Privy  Council,  are  members  of  Parliament. 
The  Parliament  consists  of  the  Governor  General,  the  Senate, 
whose  members  are  appointed  by  the  Governor  General  in  coun- 
cil with  his  advisers,  and  the  House  of  Commons,  whose  mem- 
bers are  elected  by  vote  of  the  people. 

Climate. —  The  climate  of  Southern  Canada  is  favorable  to 
the  growth  of  grass  and  of  the  wheat  plant,  which  thrives  in 
the  prairie  provinces  up  to  latitude  55°  north.  The  area  favor- 
able to  grazing  is  estimated  to  be  ten  times  as  large  as  the  area 
of  Kansas. 

Forests  and   Streams. — The  forests  of  the  Dominion  are 


among  its  sourc- 
es of  wealth;  the 
lumber  trade 
with  the  United 
States  and  Great  Brit- 
ain forming  one  of  the 
largest  items  of  its 
commerce.  The  lakes 
and  rivers  abound  in 


"^1#^ 


salmon,  and  thousands 


The  fur  trade  is  very  extensive. 


of  miles  of  coast  wa-  ^  "^^ 

ters  swarm  with  valuable  fish. 

Minerals. — Iron,  silver,  gold,  copper,  salt,  coal,  petroleum, 
slating,  and  asbestos  are  among  the  mineral  resources.  The 
Thunder  Bay  and  Silver  Islet  mines.  Lake  Superior,  have  yield- 
ed millions  of  pounds  of  silver  ore. 

Commercial  Routes. — Canada  has  a  magnificent  system  of 
canals  and  other  water-ways,  and  railways.  The  canals  con- 
necting the  St.  Lawrence  Eiver  with  the  Great  Lakes  are  of 
vast  importance  to  the  United  States.  Propellers  of  1,500  tons 
burden  may  load  with  wheat  at  Duluth,  and  reach  Montreal  by 
an  all-water  route.  A  ship  of  4,500  tons  may  cross  the  ocean 
from  Montreal.  The  great  Canadian  Pacific  &  Intercolonial 
Railway  spans  the  continent,  connecting  the  two  oceans. 

Nova  Scotia. — The  coal  mines  and  the  quarries  of  Nova 
Scotia  are  of  much  importance.  The  annual  yield  of  its  coal 
fields  is  800,000  tons.  The  seams  in  some  of  the  mines  average 
nearly  forty  feet  in  thickness. 

Halifax  has  a  large,  safe  harbor,  and  is  the  winter  port  of  Canada. 


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CANADA— DAN^ISH  AMERICA— MEXICO. 


New  Brunswick. — Large  forests  are  still  found,  and  lum- 
bering is  a  leading  industry.  Liberal  provision  is  made  for 
education. 

Prince  Edward  Island. —  Fishing,  lumbering,  and  ship 
building  are  the  chief  pursuits. 

Quebec. — Quebec  is  noted  for  the  grandeur  of  its  river 
scenery,  for  its  clear  and  beautiful  lakes,  and  its  waterfalls. 
The  winter  climate  is  severe. 

Montreal,  the  commercial  capital  of  the  Dominion,  is  at  the  head  of  ocean 
ship  navigation.  It  has  many  fine  edifices,  among  which  the  Custom  House, 
City  Hall,  Market,  McGill  University,  and  the  Notre  Dame  Cathedral,  which 
seats  10,000  people,  may  be  named. 

Near  the  city  is  the  stupendous  Victoria  Bridge,  which  crosses  the  St. 
Lawrence.  It  is  a  mile  and  a  half  in  length,  and  sixty  feet  above  the  water  at 
its  center,  allowing  vessels  to  pass  under  it. 

Quebec,  the  capital,  is  one  of  the  most  strongly  fortified  cities  in  the  world. 

Ontario  is  the  wealthiest  and  most  populous  of  the  Domin- 
ion provinces.  Its  agricultural  products  are  varied  and  abun- 
dant. It  ranks  among  the  first  wheat-producing  countries  of 
the  world.  The  forests  are  of  great  extent,  and  its  mineral 
wealth,  including  iron,  copper,  silver,  salt,  marble,  and  oil,  is 
very  great. 

Cities. —  Ottawa  is  the  center  of  a  large  lumber  trade.  Its  government 
buildings  and  normal  school  are  fine  edifices. — Toronto  is  the  largest  city.  It 
has  an  excellent  harbor,  several  railways,  and  much  commerce. 

Manitoba  is  a  prairie  province,  with  a  fertile  soil.  It  is 
noted  for  its  abundant  yield  of  wheat.  The  population  is  rap- 
idly increasing. 

Winnipeg,  the  capital,  is  the  agricultural  and  commercial  center. 

Northeast  Territory  contains  valuable  forests  in  the,south, 
but  the  north  is  a  desolate  region,  thinly  peopled  by  Indians. 


Assinniboia,  Saskatchewan,  Alberta,  and  Athabasca  are 
newly  organized  provinces,  recently  opened  to  settlement.  They 
include  prairies  and  forests,  and  much  valuable  grazing  land. 

Keewatin  and  Northwest  Territory  have  some  fertile  land  in 
the  south,  but  most  of  the  north  is  a  dreary  waste.  Timber  is 
found  on  the  Mackenzie  and  the  Upper  Yukon. 

British  Columbia  is  a  country  of  mountains,  lakes,  and 
streams,  and  is  called  the  Alpine  province  of  the  Dominion. 
The  Cascade  Mountains  are  covered  with  forests,  yielding  tim- 
ber, which  is  exported  to  Australia  and  other  countries.  The 
gold  mines  of  Praser  River,  the  coal  fields  of  Vancouver  and 
Queen  Charlotte  Islands  are  well  known.  Salmon,  cod,  and 
herring  are  found  in  the  waters.  There  are  excellent  harbors 
on  the  coast. 

Victoria,  on  Vancouver  Island,  is  beautifully  situated. 

Newfoundland  is  not  a  part  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
but  a  province  of  Great  Britain.  It  has  a  governor  general 
appointed  by  the  Crown,  an  executive  council,  and  a  legislative 
assembly. 

The  island  is  nearly  the  same  size  as  Ohio.     It  contains 

forests  and  considerable  land  suited  to  agriculture,  but  fishing 

is  the  chief  employment.     The  famous  Grand  Banks  abound  in 

cod  and  other  fish. 

These  banks  form  the  most  extensive  fishing  grounds  in  the  world.  They 
are  600  miles  in  length  and  200  miles  in  breadth.  The  cod  fishery  opens  in 
June  and  lasts  until  November. 

Labrador  belongs  to  Newfoundland.  Seals,  as  well  as  cod, 
herring,  and  salmon  are  numerous  in  its  waters.  Steamers  and 
sailing  vessels  from  the  United  States,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New- 
foundland hover  on  the  coast  during  the  fishing  season. 


DANISH   AMERICA. 


Danish  America  consists  of  Greenland  and  Iceland. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Greenland  are  Esquimaux,  many 
of  whom  have  been  converted  to  Christianity  by  Moravian  mis- 
sionaries. They  live  along  the  coast,  principally  on  the  west. 
Their  winter  houses  are  usually  under  ground.  The  popula- 
tion is  about  10,000. 

The  climate  is  severe,  but,  owing  to  the  long  days  of  sum- 
mer, barley  and  a  few  vegetables  ripen  on  the  southwestern 
coast. 

Seal  skins  and  oil,  whale  oil,  eider  down  and  furs  are  ex- 
ported. 

Iceland  is  famed  for  its  hot  springs  and  geysers.    The  Great 


Geyser,  near  Mt.  Hecla,  throws  a  column  of  water  to  the  height 
of  100  feet. 

The  inhabitants  are  of  Norwegian  descent.  They  are  intel- 
ligent, and  profess  the  Lutheran  religion.  The  governor  is 
appointed  by  the  king  of  Denmark,  to  whom  the  island  is 
subject. 

Many  sheep,  horses,  and  cattle  are  raised  on  the  fine  pas- 
tures in  the  south.  Fishing  is  an  important  industry.  There 
are  no  forests,  but  driftwood  is  brought  by  the  ocean  currents. 
The  polar  bear  sometimes  floats  in  on  a  cake  of  ice. 

Reykjavik  (Rik-yah-vik),  the  capital,  has  a  library  of  10,000  volumes,  holds 
a  great  annual  Mr,  aud  has  steam  communication  with  Copenhagen  and  Leith. 


MEXICO. 


"'  DESCRIPTION. 

Mexico  is  a  republic,  with  a  constitution  similar  to  that  of 
the  United  States.  Ilr  consists  of  twenty-seven  states,  one  ter- 
ritory. Lower  California,  and  the  federal  district  of  Mexico,  the 
seat  of  the  general  government.  Its  territory  would  make  more 
than  twenty  states  the  size  of  Indiana. 


Inhabitants. — The  population  is  composed  of  Indians,  ne- 
groes, whites,  or  Creoles,  who  are  of  Spanish  origin,  and  mesti- 
zoes. The  Indians  are  much  the  most  numerous  class.  The 
pure  whites  form  a  very  small  part  of  the  community.  The 
mestizoes,  or  half-castes,  stand  next  to  the  Indians  in  point  of 
numbers. 


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MEXICO— EDUCATION— RELIGION. 


The  Indians  and  mestizoes  generally  fnmish  the  honse  servants,  the  mule 
drivers,  the  small  farmers,  the  scattered  peasants,  the  herdsmen,  the  wandering 
beggars,  and  the  banditti;  but  they  sometimes  rise  to  be  artisans,  tradesmen, 
priests,  and  officers  of  the  state.  The  negroes,  who  are  the  least  numerous  class, 
perform  most  of  the  heavy  work  in  the  cities,  and  are  often  engaged  in  cattle 
herding  or  on  large  plantations. 

The  Creoles  are  most  numerous  in  the  towns.  They  call  themselves  Anreri- 
cans,  and  are  the  landlords,  merchants,  physicians,  lawyers,  and  artisans.  They 
learn  easily,  but  are  fond  of  pleasure,  passionate,  fickle,  and  indolent.  A  few 
European  tradesmen  are  found  in  the  chief  cities. 

Education.  —  Education  has  been  neglected,  and  three- 
fourths  of  the  people  can  neither  read  nor  write.  The  present 
government  has  done  much  to  establish  schools;  and  there  are 
now  several  thousand  public  schools,  besides  special  schools  of 
law,  medicine,  agriculture,  mines,  commerce,  and  fine  arts. 

Religion. — All  religions  are  equally  protected  by  the  state, 
but  most  of  the  people  are  Roman  Catholics. 

The  country  is  noted  for  its  insurrections  and  frequent 
changes  of  rulers.    The  people,  as 
a  whole,  lack  enterprise.   Property 
and  life  are  insecure,  and  labor  is 


Silver  is  by  far  the  most  important  metal,  the  mines  having  produced  more 
than  half  the  supply  of  the  world.  For  a  time,  thousands  of  mines  were  given 
up  as  unprofitable,  but  the  introduction  of  improved  machinery  and  the  open- 
ing of  railroads  have  revived  the  mining  interest. 

Enormous  beds  of  pure  sulphur,  far  superior  to  that  of  Naples  or  Sicily,  in  the 
Old  World,  are  found  in  the  crater  of  Popocatapetl.  The  crater  is  5,320  feet  in 
diameter,  and  has  a  depth  of  1,600  feet.  Hitherto,  the  sulpliur  has  been  lifted 
from  the  interior  by  machinery;  but,  it  is  said,  a  tunnel  is  to  be  made,  and  a  car 
track  laid  toward  the  very  heart  of  the  mountain,  over  which  the  sulphur  may 
be  conveyed  to  the  base,  much  more  rapidly,  and  at  moderate  cost.  Salt  is 
abundant  on  the  arid  steppes  and  plains. 

Commercial  Routes. — The  lack  of  common  roads,  railroads, 
and  water-ways  has  greatly  hindered  the  progress  of  the  country, 
but  several  thousand  miles  of  railroad  are  now  in  operation,  and 
other  lines  are  in  progress  of  construction.  One  of  the  principal 
routes  extends  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico.  There  are  no  navi- 
gable rivers,  and  the  best  harbors  are  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Exports  and  Imports. — The  chief  exports  are  the  precious 
metals,  sisal  hemp,  which  is  the  fiber 
of  the  agave,  lumber,  coffee,  vanilla, 
cochineal,  cattle,  tobacco,  India-rub- 


considered  degrading.  In  some  of  the  cities,  even  mothers  of 
the  better  class  are  accustomed  to  place  their  children  in  found- 
ling hospitals  to  relieve  themselves  of  the  care  of  bringing 
them  up. 

Agriculture. — As  we  have  learned,  the  soil  produces  nearly 

all  the  important  plants  of  the  tropical,  the  semi-tropical,  and 

'the  temperate  zones,  according  to  elevation;  but  the  land  is 

not  skillfully  tilled,  and  the  natural  resources  of  the  country 

are  undeveloped. 

Cotton,  coflFee,  tobacco,  and  grain  are  cultivated  on  the  table- 
lands. There  are  many  large  ranches,  on  which  horned  cat- 
tle, horses,  and  mules  are  raised  in  great  numbers.  The  mule 
is  the  chief  beast  of  burden. 

Maize  is  cultivated  on  all  the  farms.  Its  meal,  when  made  into  tortUlas, 
is  the  common  food  of  all  classes,  taking  the  place  of  bread. 

Minerals. —  Mexico  has  immense  mineral  wealth.  Silver, 
gold,  copper,  salt,  sulphur,  iron,  and  the  finest  marble  are  found 
in  abundance. 


■' ■'^TrAGS  OF  rH£  /'£0'v  5- , 


ber,  indigo,  sar- 
saparilla.    The 
imports  are  cot- 
ton, linen,  woolen,  and  silk  goods,  machinery,  hardware,  and  pro- 
visions. 

Towns. — The  Mexican  towns  are  generally  built  on  the  upland  plains. 
They  have  broad,  straight  streets,  and  flat-roofed,  one-story  houses,  without 
chimneys.  A  high  gateway  leads  to  the  front  entrance,  and  the  rooms  of  the 
house  open  on  to  a  veranda.  Above  all  other  buildings  towers  the  cathedral, 
with  its  dome  often  richly  ornamented  with  many-colored  tiles.  The  Alamedas, 
or  public  pleasure  grounds,  are  a  common  feature.  These  are  gardens  laid  out 
with  taste  and  adorned  with  fountains;  and  containing  an  exuberant  growth  of 
trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers,  such  as  are  found  in  sub- tropical  lands. 

On  the  streets  one  sees  a  motley  crowd — whites,  Indians,  negroes,  and  half- 
breeds  of  every  hue.  There  are  gaily  dressed  Creoles  on  horseback  and  on  foot, 
Indians  with  their  pack  mulos,  negroes  with  their  burdens,  priests  with  their 
robes,  beggars  soliciting  alms,  and  lazy  leperos  ready  to  steal,  to  gamble,  or  to 
waylay. 

Cities. — Mexico  is  7,470  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  overlooked  by  lofty  vol- 
canoes. It  contains  many  fine  public  buildings,  and  occupies  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Aztec  capital,  destroyed  by  Cort«z  in  1521. — Vera  Cruz  and  Acapulco 
are  the  chief  seaports. 


CENTRAL   AMERICA. 


Countries  and  People.  —  Central  America  includes  five  re- 
publics and  the  British  colony  of  Balize.  The  surface,  climate, 
soil,  and  productions  are  similar  to  those  of  Southern  Mexico, 
and  one  finds  the  same  mixed  population.  The  people  of  the 
white  race  are  far  outnumbered  by  those  of  the  dark  races,  but 
they  form  the  governing  class. 

Ruins. —  Here,  as  in  portious  of  Mexico,  are  many  remains  of  an  ancient 
civilization,  now  overgrown  with  forest  trees  and  the  densest  tropical  vegeta^ 
tion.  The  dead  city  of  Copan,  in  Central  Guatemala,  contains  walls,  fragments 
of  buildings,  monuments  covered  with  sculptured  figures  and  hieroglyphics 
that  none  can  rea<l.  There  are  altars,  images,  and  subterranean  chambers  with 
earthen  jars  containing  human  bones.    The  builders  of  these  ruins  are  unknown. 

Guatemala  is  noted  for  its   coffee  plantations.      They  are 

situated  from  2,000  to  4,500  feet  above  the  sea.      Cochineal  is 

an  article  of  export. 

The  original  seed  of  the  coffee  was  brought  fiom  Arabia,  about  ninety  years 
ago,  by  French  colonists.      The  plants  are  started  in  beds  and  tended  until 


the  shadow  of  its  crown  covers  a  vast  extent  of  surface.  British  settlements  for 
cutting  and  shipping  the  valuable  timber  of  this  tree  were  established  as  long 
ago  as  1638." 

San  Salvador  is  the  most  populous  of  the  Central  Ameri- 
can States.  It  is  noted  for  its  earthquakes  and  the  eruptions 
of  its  volcanoes.  The  capital  has  been  repeatedly  destroyed. 
India-rubber  and  indigo  are  the  chief  articles  of  trade.  The 
indigo  is  the  finest  in  the  world,  surpassing  that  of  Bengal  in 
delicacy  of  color. 

Nicaragua  has  forests  of  logwood  and  mahogany,  and  there 

are  grassy  plains  where  large  numbers  of  oxen,  horees,  and  mules 

are  reared. 

A  ship  canal  connecting  the  two  oceans  by  way  of  the  San  Juan  River  and 
Lake  Nicaragua  is  in  process  of  construction.  An  island  in  this  lake  contains 
ancient  ruins. 

Costa  Rica,  the  "Rich  Coast,"  is  a  table-land  rising  in  ter- 


SCEKE  IS  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 


transplanted  in  grounds  prepared  for  them. 
his  first  berries. 


The  planter  waits  five  years  for 


Guatemala,  the  capital,  is  a  healthy  tropical  town,  ■with  the  twin  volcanoes 
del  Fuego  and  de  la  Agua,  or  "Fire  and  Water,"  towering  above  it.  All  the 
fruits  of  the  tropics  are  brought  to  the  capital  to  be  sold. 

Honduras  has  fine  forests  of  mahogany. 

The  mahogany  flourishes  on  the  high  crests  of  sandy  hills  in  Honduras  and 
other  states  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  Central  America.  "  It  is  one  of 
the  most  majestic  and  beautiful  trees,  rearing  its  huge  crown  of  shining  green 
leaves  far  above  all  the  other  growths  of  the  forest.  Its  trunk  is  often  50  feet  in 
height  and  12  feet  in  diameter  and  ramifies,  higher  up,  into  so  many  arms  that 


races  from  the  coast  belt.  The  interior  is  traversed  by  sharp 
volcanic  ridges  furrowed  by  torrents.  Coffee  is  the  staple  of 
trade,  though  cattle  breeding  and  mining  yield  considerable  in- 
come. 

Balize,  or  British  Honduras,  belongs  to  Great  Britain.  Ma- 
hogany and  cochineal  are  the  great  staples  of  trade. 

Castillo  is  the  center  of  the  India-rubber  trade.  Gangs  of  natives  are  fitted 
out  to  penetrate  the  dense  forests  of  the  Atlantic  coast  to  secure  the  resin. 
The  rubber  of  Centn  America  comes  from  a  tree  difiering  greatly  from  the 
rubber  tree  of  Brazil.    It  belongs  to  a  species  remarkable  for  its  large  leaves. 


THE    WEST   INDIES. 


Divisions. — The  West  Indies  coLaist  of  about  one  thousand 
islands.  They  are  divided  into  groups,  named  the  Bahamas, 
Great  Antilles,  and  Lesser  Antilles. 

Ownership. — With  the  exception  of  Hayti,  which  forms 


two  native  states,  the  islands  belong  to  Great  Britain,  Ifether- 
lands,  Sweden,  Denmark,  France,  Spain,  and  Venezuela. 

Surface  and  Climate. — The  West  Indies  lie  in  a  sea  famed 
for  its  transparency.     Though  some  contain  sandy  plains  or 


100 


THE  WEST  INDIES— SOUTH  AMEEIOA. 


grass-grown  savannas,  the  general  character  of  the  land  is  that 
of  richly  wooded  mountain  slopes  and  valleys.     The  tropical 
heat  is  tempered  by  the  long,  cool  nights,  the  sea  breezes,  and, 
on  many  of  the  islands,  by  the  ele- 
vation of  the  land. 

Inhabitants. — The  islands  were  origin- 
ally peopled  by  a  great  number  of  Indian 
tribes;  but  the  gentle  and  trusting  natives 
who  welcomed  Columbus,  and  the  warlike 
Caribs,  skillful  mariners  and  the  terror  of 
their  neighbors,  have  alike  vanished  before 
the  white  man.  The  Europeans  now  form 
about  one-sixth,  the  negroes  more  than  one- 
half,  and  the  mulattoes  tlie  remainder  of  the 
population.  The  whole  number  of  inhabit- 
ants on  the  islands  is  about  4,400,000. 

Occupations  and  Productions.  —  The 
cultivation  of  the  plantations  is  the  great 
occupation.  The  whites  own  the  estates  and 
the  hovels  of  the  laborers,  who  are  negroes. 
Negroes  were  once  imported  from  Africa  as 
slaves,  but  since  the  abolition  of  slavery  they 
have  acquired,  in  most  of  the  colonies,  the 
rights  of  citizens. 

The  Antilles  are  largely  devoted  to  the 
production  of  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  cacao, 
and  tobacco.  Besides  these,  pepper,  vanilla, 
indigo,  cloves,  aloes,  arrowroot,  mandioca, 
tropical  fruits,  sweet  potatoes,  rice,  bread- 
fruit, and  cocoanuts  are  produced.  The 
principal  wealth  of  the  Bahamas  consists  in 
mahogany,  campeachy  wood,  and  timber  for 
ship  building. 

The  manufiicturing  industries  are  mostly 
limited  to  those  things  connected  with  the 
plimtations  and  navigation.  Local  trade  is 
carried  on  by  crafts  sailing  from  i)ort  to  port. 
Manufactured  wares  are  brought  from  Europe  and  from  the  United  States. 

Hurricanes. — Hurricanes  are  the  great  scourge  of  all  the  islands.  Trees, 
houses,  and  shipping  are  destroyed,  and  many  lives  are  lost.  "The  sea  is  lashed 
to  the  wildest  frenzy.  The  waves,  upheaved  by  blasts  of  wind  from  opi)osite 
directions,  rush  madly  against  each  other,  the  collision  causing  the  billows  to 
be  piled  mountain  high,  sending  thick  volumes  of  foam  far  above  the  tallest 
masts;  the  sea  heaves  and  tosses  as  in  a  seething  caldron,  and  the  white-crested 
breakers  cover  the  bosom  of  the  deep  far  and  wide.  The  strongest  vessels  run 
imminent  danger  in  the  tumultuous  waters — now  suspended  in  mid  air  on  the 
tops  of  the  strong  waves,  now  disappearing  in  the  yawning  trough  of  the  sea."* 

Cuba,  a  colony  of  Spain,  called  the  "Queen  of  the  Antilles," 
and  regarded  by  CJolumbus  as  "the  fairest  land  the  eye  has  ever 
gaa;ed  on,"  is  about  half  the  size  of  Minnesota. 

Of  its  1,500,000  inhabitants  nearly  one-half  are  whites  and 
the  rest  negroes  and  half-castes.  Of  the  red  men,  supposed 
to  number  1,000,000  in  1492,  not  one  was  left  at  the  end  of  the 
16th  century. 

Cuba  is  the  greatest  sugar-producing  country  of  the  world, 
and  its  plantations  are  devoted  to  the  culture  of  sugar-cane, 
tobacco,  and  coffee. 

•  Consult  Stanford's  Central  and  South  America.— .BatM. 


Havana  has  a  fine  harbor  and  is  the  greatest  commercial  city  in  the  West 
Indies.     It  has  a  large  trade  with  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 

Jamaica,  the  "Land  of  Springs,"  as  the  natives  term  it,  is 
the  third  in  extent  of  these  wonderful  islands.  It  is  described  as 
having  bold  headlands,  charming  inlets,  roaring  streams,  green 
meadows,  and  dark  groves. 

Besides  its  tropical  products  it  is  rich  in  minerals.  Jamaica 
belongs  to  Great  Britain. 

Hayti,  the  "Land  of  High  Hills,"  has  great  natural  re- 
sources. It  consists  of  two  republics,  whose  unsettled  condition 
has  retarded  the  prosperity  of  the  island.  "Its  fertile  plains 
lie  untilled,  its  mines  unworked,  while  political  broils  and  rev- 
olutions go  on." 

Porto  Rico  belongs  to  Spain.  It  is  the  coolest  and  healthi- 
est of  the  "West  Indies,  and  has  flourishing  plantations.  Mining 
and  cattle  raising  are  carried  on,  and  it  is  almost  the  only 
island  of  the  Antilles  that  produces  food  sufficient  for  its  in- 
habitants. 


SOUTH   AMERICA 


/ 


MAP  STUDIES. 

REVIEW    EXERCISES. 

Physical  Features. —  Locate  and  describe  the  coast  waters,  capes,  islands, 
mountains,  highlands,  plains,  lakes,  and  great  rivers  of  South  America. 

Climate. — In  what  zones  does  the  continent  lie?    State  how  the  climate  is 
affected  by  mountains,  ocean  currents,  winds,  and  rainfaU. 

Plant  Zones.— In  what  plant  zones  is  the  continent  situated? 

Probable  Industries. — State  which  portions  of  South  America  seem  best 
suited  to  agriculture;  to  stock  raising;  to  mining;  to  lumbering. 


General  Questions. — How  many  political  divisions  are  there?  Name  the 
largest.  The  smallest.  What  divisions  lie  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean?  On  the 
Pacific?  On  both  oceans?  What  divisions  are  washed  by  the  Caribbean  Sea? 
What  countries  have  no  sea  coast?  What  countries  are  crossed  or  bordered 
by  the  Andes?  What  countries  form  a  part  of  the  great  central  plain?  What 
countries  have  the  fewest  rivers?  In  what  conntries  are  the  llanos?  The 
pampas?  Which  countries  seem  best  situated  for  foreign  commerce?  For  river 
commerce?    Which  conntries  must  be  richest  in  vegetable  products? 

EXERCISES.— Locate  and  describe  the  countries  of  South  America. 
Locate  the  chief  cities. 

Sketch  a  map  showing  political  divisions. 


102' 


SOUTH  AMEEICA— CONQUEST— PEOPLE. 


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DESCRIPTION. 

Early   Inhabitants. — Indians 

were  the  sole  inhabitants  of  South 

America  when  it  was  discovered 

by  Europeans,  and  portions  of  the 

continent  were  thickly  peopled  by 

peaceful  tribes,  some  of  which 

gained  a  living  by  agriculture. 

The  Indians  of  the  high  valleys  of  Teni 

terraced  the  mountain  slopes  and  irrigated 

their  lands  hy  means  of  a<iueducts,  some  of 

■which  were  many  miles  in  length.     They  had 

large  cities,  beautifully  ornamented  temples,  fine 

roads,  and  other  public  works.     Many  remains  of 

their  civilization  are  yet  found. 

Conquest. — Early  in  the  sixteenth  century 
the  entire  continent,   except  Patagonia,  was  con- 
quered by  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese.    The  eastern 
part  of  Brazil  became  subject  to  Portugal,  and  the  rest 
of  the  continent  to  Spain. 

Colonies. — Colonies  were  established,  and  the 
mother  countries  held  their  possessions  for  nearly 
300  years.    After  a  severe  struggle  the  Spanish 
provinces  became  independent,  and  all  of  them  organ  - 
ized  republican  governments  that  are  still  maintained.    In 
1822,  Brazil  obtained  peaceable  separation  from  Portugal,  and 
a  constitutional  monarchy  was  established,  the  only  empire  In  the 
New  World.     The  divisions  of  Guiana  are  the  only  portions  of  the  con- 
tinent now  controlled  by  European  powers. 

People. — The  population  is  made  up  of  native  Indians;  of  negroes,  whose 
forefathers  were  brought  from  Africa  as  slaves;  of  the  ruling  whites,  who  are 
mostly  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  descent,  and  of  mestizoes,  a  mixed  race  spring- 
ing from  the  other  three.    The  Indians  and  mestizoes  together  far  outnumber 
the  whites. 

Millions  of  the  Indians  are  savages,  but  in  many  places  they  are  quite  intelligent  and  form  an 
industrious  class.     The  negroes  are  found  mostly  in  Brazil  and  Guiana.     The  whites  are  largely  con- 
fined to  a  comparatively  narrow  belt  extending  round  the  continent;  but,  in  all  the  South  American  States, 
one  meets  with  whites,  Indians,  and  mestizoes  of  every  shade,  the  pure  whites  comprising  the  small&st  class. 

Condition. — The  mass  of  the  people  are  ignorant  and  indolent,  and  even  the  whites  generally  lack  the 
spirit  of  enterprise  which  prevails  in  North  America.    Some  countries,  however,  are  making  commendable  progress  in 
establishing  schools,  in  building  railroads,  and  in  adopting  modern  improvements. 


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SOUTH  AMERICA— BfiAZIL— VENEZUELA. 


103 


Facilities  for  Commerce. — The  common  roads  are  poor, 
and  the  lines  of  railroad  already  built  are  generally  short.  The 
grand  system  of  rivers  is  little  used,  None  of  the  countries 
take  first  rank  among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

Occupations. — Agriculture,  stock  raising,  and  mining  are 
the  leading  occupations.  The  great  natural  resources  of  the 
continent  have  remained  undeveloped  because  of  political 
troubles  and  want  of  energy  in  the  inhabitants.  The  soil  is 
poorly  tilled,  manufactures  are  neglected,  and  much  of  the 
wealth  consists  in  cattle  and  horses,  which  run  at  large  in  a 
half- wild  state,  and  give  their  owners  little  trouble.  Thous- 
ands of  persons  live  almost  wholly  on  meat  because  they  are 
too  indolent  to  raise  grain  or  vegetables,  and  that,  too,  where 
the  soil  would  yield  a  hundredfold 

Religion. — The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  prevailing  religion, 
but  other  denominations  are  tolerated. 

Empire  of  Brazil. —  It  is  said  that  Brazil  derived  its  name 
from  a  native  tree  whose  wood  is  of  a  red  color  and  called  by 
the  Portuguese  "brazas,"  or  coals  of  fire.  The  empire  is  nearly 
as  large  as  the  United  States.  It  includes  a  fifteenth  of  the 
land  surface  of  the  globe  and  is  divided  into  some  twenty  prov- 
inces. 

It  surpasses  every  other  country  in  the  richness  of  its  vege- 
tation. Its  forests  furnish  India-rubber;  rose,  cedar,  and  other 
cabinet-woods;  vegetable  ivory;  dye-woods  of  various  sorts; 
medicinal  barks  and  plants;  vanilla,  cloves,  and  cinnamon.  A 
few  of  the  fruits  are  pineapples,  bananas,  oranges,  custard  ap- 
ples, rose  apples,  guavas,  and  the  finest  of  melons.  Coffee,  sugar, 
cotton,  and  tobacco  are  staple  products. 

Three-fourths  of  the  coffee  used  in  the  world  comes  from  Brazil,  and  a  large 
portion  of  it  is  shipped  to  the  United  States.  Much  that  is  sold  abroad  as  Mocha 
and  Java  grows  in  this  country. 

Immense  herds  of  cattle  graze  on  the  plains  in  the  southern  part.  Little 
has  been  done  to  improve  the  breeds. 

The  diamond  mines  are  the  richest  in  the  world.  In  1847  a  diamond  was 
found  which  brought  nearly  |200,000.  Emeralds,  rubies,  topazes,  and  other 
precious  stones,  as  well  as  gold,  iron,  copper,  and  tin,  are  found.  Diamantina  is 
the  center  of  the  diamond  region. 

A  very  small  portion  of  the  country  is  under  cultivation.  The  white  in- 
habitants number  about  one-third  of  the  population,  and  are  mostly  of  Portu- 
guese origin.  They  look  upon  labor  as  degrading,  and  expect  the  negroes  to  do 
the  work. 

Several  thousand  miles  of  railroad  are  in  operation.  A  line  of  steamers  plies 
on  the  Amazon,  but  most  of  the  water-ways  are  but  little  used.  Free  public 
schools  are  established  in  the  towns,  and  in  some  of  the  provinces  education  is 
compulsory,  but  in  a  backward  state. 

The  exports  are  coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  dye-woods, 

cabinet-woods,  hides,  and  diamonds.     The  imports  are  all  kinds 

of  manufactured  goods,  including  flour 

and  wine. 

Cities. — Rio  Janeiro  is  the  chief  commercial 
city  of  South  America.  Its  harbor  is  one  of  the 
best  in  the  world.  The  surroundings,  consisting 
of  the  beautiful  bay,  hills  with  tropical  foliage 
and  waterfalls,  are  charming.  It  is  the  great 
coffee  port. — Bahia  has  a  fine  harbor  and  exten- 
sive commerce. — Pemambuco  exports  large  quan- 
tities of  sugar. — Para  is  the  great  India-rubber 
market. 

The  Guianas. — The  Guianas  are  colonial  possessions  of  the 
English,  Dutch,  and  French.  The  hot,  moist  climate  of  the  low 
coast  does  not  agree  with  Europeans.  Of  12,000  immigrants  who 
came  out  from  France  in  1763,  9,000  perished  from  exposure  to 
the  climate. 

The  true  wealth  of  these  countries  lies  in  their  fertile  soil  and 


HARBOR  OF  RIO. 


tropical  productions.   The  chief  exports  are  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa, 

indigo,  and  timber.     The  capitals  are  the  centers  of  commerce. 

Three-fourths  of  the  inhabitants  are  negroes,  who  perform  most  of  the  labor. 
French  Guiana  is  used  by  France  as  a  penal  settlement. 

The  island  of  Cayenne,  just  oif  Jthe  coast,  is  noted  for  Cayenne 
pepper. 

Venezuela. — In  1499,  when  the  Spanish  explorers  traced  the 
northern  coast  of  South  America,  they  found  a  little  Indian  vil- 
lage built  on  piles  in  the  water,  at  the  entrance  of  Lake  Mara- 
caybo,  which  so  reminded  them  of  Venice,  in  the  Old  World,  that 
they  gave  it  the  name  of  Venezuela,  meaning  "Little  Venice," 
which  name  was  afterward  given  to  the  whole  country 

The  republic  of  Venezuela  consists  of  twenty-two  states.  It  has  three  zones 
of  climate  depending  upon  elevation.  The  hot  zone,  first  above  the  sea  level, 
the  temperate,  in  the  next  higher  region,  described  as  an  "Eden  of  natural 
loveliness,"  and,  highest  of  all,  the  cold  zone,  a  region  of  almost  perpetual 
mists,  and  subject  to  storms  of  hail  and  snow. 

The  chief  occupation  is  agriculture,  the  exceptionally  rich 
and  varied  vegetable  products  forming  the  greatest  source  of 
wealth.  Coffee  of  the  finest  flavor;  sugar  from  the  Otaheite  cane; 
cotton  of  the  South  Sea  Island  variety;  cacao  and  indigo  are 
grown,  and  form  the  chief  articles  of  export.  Besides  these 
products,  there  are  Indian  corn,  Peruvian  bark,  sarsaparilla, 
and  other  medicinal  plants. 

Stock  raising  is  the  great  industry  on  the  llanos.  Homed  cattle,  sheep, 
goats,  horses,  mules,  and  swine  are  found  in  immense  numbers;  and  hides, 
tallow,  and  horns  are  articles  of  export. 

Maiiufactures  are  not  wholly  neglected,  but  tools,  articles  of  dress,  hardware, 
beer,  wine,  and  the  like  are  imported.  Flour  and  cheese  are  brought  from  the 
United  States;  iron  and  cotton  goods,  from  England;  silks,  paper,  perfumery, 
and  the  fashions,  from  France;  glass,  porcelain,  iron,  clothing,  beer,  and  drugs, 
from  Germany. 

Caracas  has  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  enjoys  the  climate 
of  perpetual  spring.  In  1812,  the  city  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  and 
12,000  people  lost  their  lives.  Gen.  Simon  Bolivar,  the  deliverer  of  the  Spanish 
South  American  republics,  was  bom  here. 

Colombia. — The  United  States  of  Colombia  is  composed  of 
several  states.  Its  constitution  is  similar  to  that  of  the  United 
States  of  North  America.  The  surface  is  made  up  of  lowlands, 
valleys,  and  mountains  rising  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow, 
so  that  all  zones  of  climate  are  represented,  and  one  may  see 
every  variety  of  vegetation  according  to  elevation.  On  the  low- 
lands, the  agriculturist  cultivates  tropical  plants,  while  wheat, 
rye,  and  orchard  fruits  flourish  in  the  high  valleys.  Stock  rais- 
ing is  a  great  industry.  The  mines  yield  precious  metals,  salt, 
coal,  and  emeralds. 

There  is  a  lack  of  good  common  and  other  roads,  and  the  cities  situated  at  a 
distance  from  the  Magdalena,  which  is  the  chief  water-way,  are  reached  by 
rugged  mountain  pathways,  over  which  goods  are  carried  on  the  backs  of  mules, 
or  often  by  women  who  take  the  place  of  beasts  of  burden. 

The  Panama  Railroad,  which  crosses  the  isthmus,  is  the  shortest  route  be- 
tween the  oceans,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  railways  in  the  world. 

The  exports  are  hides,  tallow,  tropical  fruits,  cabinet  and  dye 

woods,  tobacco,  coffee,  emeralds,  and  gold. 

Bogota  is  situated  on  a  plateau  8,600  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  buildings  are 
low  and  thick- walled  to  prevent  destruction  by  earthquakes. 

Ecuador. — Ecuador  took  its  name  from  the  Equator,  by 
which  it  is  crossed.  The  high  valleys  and  tablelands  comprise 
the  principal  cultivated  land.  The  eastern  portion  belongs  to 
the  great  forest  region  of  the  Amazon.  Fields  of  wheat,  barley, 
and  clover  grow  10,000  feet  above  the  sea,  while  sugar-cane, 
cacao,  and  orange  groves  flourish  on  lower  levels. 

The  commerce  of  the  country  is  small.  Cacao,  vegetable 
ivory.  India-rubber,  and  Peruvian  bark  are  the  chief  exports. 


104 


SOUTH  AMERICA— PEEU— BOLIVIA— CHILI. 


Quito  is  situated  in  a  valley  9,343  feet  above  the  sea.  The  valley  is  desti- 
tute of  trees,  and  only  a  little  maize  and  a  few  garden  vegetables  are  cultivated 
in  the  vicinity,  but  the  city  is  a  fine  fruit  market. 

Mountiiiu  paths  lead  to  the  warm  belt  below,  and  up  these  are  brought 
juicy  strawberries,  blackberries,  peaches,  cherries,  pineapples,  bananas,  and 
other  delicious  tropical  fruits  that  may  be  eaten  with  ice  from  Mount  Pinchin- 
cha,  close  at  hand.  The  houses  are  built  low,  and  without  window-sash,  and 
one-fourth  of  the  city  consists  of  convents  and  churches. 

Peru. — Peru  has  some  1,300  miles  of  sea  coast,  along  which 

stretch  high  plains  forming  a  narrow  belt,  much  of  which  is 

as  barren  as  Sahara.     Here  and  there,.  ^  aa  crossing  the 


plain,  arecnltivated  valleys,  as  luxuriant  -^^"if^:^^    and  lovely 


as  those  of  Italy. 
Then  come  the  moun- 
tains with  intervening  table- 
lands of  great  elevation,  and, 
eastward,  the  Montanas  or 
wooded  slopes,  rich  in  vege 
table  products. 

The  inhabitants  live  princi- 
pally along  the  valleys  of  the  coast 
region  and  on  the  table-lands.    Nearly 
one-half  are  Indians,  but  there  are  many 
negroes  in  the  cities  of  the  plains. 

The  vegetable  products  are  those  of  the  Torrid  and 
Temperate  Zones. 

From  its  discovery.  Pern  has  been  famed  for  its  gold, 
silver,  quicksilver,  copper,  lead,  and  iron,  but  its  mines 
are  inefficiently  worked. 

The  progress  of  the  country  has  been  retarded  by  political  quarrels,  insur- 
rections, and  war;  but  much  has  been  done  to  develop  its  resources  by  the  con- 
struction of  railways,  and  the  opening  of  water-ways. 

The  railroads  over  the  Andes  connect  the  temperate  regions  with  the  sea- 
ports. They  show  great  engineering  skill.  There  are  steep  cuttings,  viaducts, 
windings  up  rough,  steep  slopes  to  a  height  of  14,600  feet.  A  line  of  steamers 
runs  on  the  Amazon,  which  is  navigable  to  a  point  only  325  miles  from  Lima, 
or  3,400  miles  from  the  Atlantic.  The  steamers  of  Peru  connect  with  those 
of  Brazil. 

The  expoils  of  Peru  are  guano,  or  bird  manure,  obtained  in 
vast  quantities  from  the  Chincha  Islands,  copper,  saltpeter,  sil 
ver,  Peruvian  bark,  gums,  and  wool. 

Cities. — Lima  was  founded  by  Pizarro,  who  conquered  the  country  and  put 
the  ruler  to  death.  The  houses  are  built  of  clay,  and  are  very  low,  with  flat, 
clay  roofs.  Scarcely  a  drop  of  rain  falls,  but  heavy  dews  are  common.  A  heavy 
shower  would  convert  the  city  into  a  mass  of  mud. —  Callao,  seven  miles  away, 
is  the  port  of  Lima. —  Cuzco  was  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Incas,  and  contained 
a  grand  temple  of  the  sun.  At  this  place  there  is  no  lack  of  rain,  hail,  or 
snow.     The  natives  have  a  saying,  that,  "It  rains  thirteen  months  in  the  year." 

Bolivia. — Bolivia  takes  its  name  from  Gen.  Simon  Bolivar. 
Its  surface  is  greatly  diversified.  The  table-lands  are  broad,  and 
the  great  plateau  on  which  is  Lake  Titicaca  attains  an  elevation 
of  over  12,000  feet. 


The  table-lands  are  the  chief  seat  of  population.  The  low- 
lands yield  tropical  products;  wheat,  corn,  and  other  grains 
grow  on  the  cultivated  table  lands,  and  the  higher  slopes  pas- 
ture the  sheep  and  llama. 

Silver,  copper,  and  gold  are  abundant.  The  silver  mines  of 
Potosi,  once  famed  for  their  richness,  are  now  much  less  pro- 
ductive. 

Agriculture  and  cattle  breeding  are  in  a  backward  state, 

and  commerce  is  in  its  infancy.     The  leading  exports  are  gold, 

silver,  copper,  tin,  vicugna  and  sheep's  wool,  chinchilla  fur, 

tobacco,  and  spices. 

Cities. — All  the  chief  cities  are  on  the  plateau. — La  Paz  is  the  commercial 
center.  Most  of  its  inhabitants  are  Indians.  The  streets  are  narrow, 
and  paved  with  flint  stones;  the  houses  are  roofed  with  tile,  and  the 
great  square  is  adorned  -vvith  a  fountain. 

Near  the  city  is  the  mighty  volcano  of  Illimani,  20,110  feet  high,  its 
eastern  slopes  clothed  with  tropical  plants  bearing  delicious  fruits 
tliat  find  a  market  in  La  Paz. 

Chili. — The  fertile  and  cultivated 
portion  of  Chili  is  a  long,  eleva- 
ted valley  fronted  by  a  coast 
range,  and  backed  by  the 
higher  Cordilleras  on  the 
east.     The  grains,  fruits, 
and  roots  of  the  Temper- 
ate Zones  are  produced. 
South  of  Coquimbo, 
the  country  is  well 
tilled   or   wooded, 
and  the  natives  caH 
it  the  "Garden  of  the 
World." 

Chili  is  noted  for  its 

mineral  wealth,  and  even 

^    the  Desert  of  Atiicama  is 

one  vast  mine.     In  a 

single  province 

4,000  silver 


mines  have  been 
surveyed. 

Chili  is  the  most  pros-     ^^v^  '*' 

perous  of  the  South  American 

republics.    It  has  important  railways, 

and  its  finances  are  in  excellent  condition. 

The  peaceful,  industrious  population  consists  of  half-caste  whites  and  In- 
dians. Pure-blood  Europeans  are  found  only  in  the  best  families.  The  soil  is 
held  by  wealthy  families,  and  there  is  little  chance  for  the  poor  laborer  to  be- 
come a  land  owner. 

The  most  important  exports  are  copper,  silver,  wheat,  hemp, 
wool,  and  guano  from  islands  near  the  coast. 

Cities.— Santiago  has  well-paved,  broad,  and  clean  streets,  street  railways, 
sumptuous  private  residences,  a  university,  military  academy,  and  normal 
school. — Valparaiso  is  the  chief  seaport. 

Argentine  Republic— The  Argentine  Republic  is  one  of 
the  most  progressive  of  the  South  American  States.  It  has  sev- 
eral lines  of  railway,  one  of  which  crosses  the  continent  con- 


SOUTH  AMERICA— EUROPE— BRITISH  ISLES. 


iiys 


necting  Buenos  Ayres  with  Valparaiso.    Lines  of  ocean  steamers 
carry  on  trade  with  the  United  States  and  Europe. 

The  races  are  less  intenningled  than  in  any  other  South  American  country. 
There  has  been  a  large  immigration  of  English,  Italians,  Germans,  and  Swiss, 
but  the  Spaniards  still  form  the  ruling  element. 

Tlie  land  is  held  by  men  of  wealth  who  purchase  extensive  tracts  on  the 
pampas  and  stocTc  them  with  homed  cattle,  horses,  or  sheep.  The  poorer  classes, 
partly  half-castes,  are  employed  as  overseers  and  laborers,  tending  countless 
flocks  and  herds,  and  leading  a  life  similar  to  that  of  the  people  of  the  Asiatic 
steppes.  The  wealthy  owners  spend  most  of  their  time  in  the  principal  towns, 
visiting  their  ranches  only  in  the  summer. 

The  chief  wealth  is  in  stock.    The  vegetable  products  are 

maize,  wheat,  and  other  grains,  and  European  fruits.     Many 

tropical  nut-bearing  trees  and  plants  grow  in  the  north. 

Every  town  has  morning  and  evening  schools,  free  to  all,  but  there  are  few 
educational  advantages  for  the  .scattered  population  of  the  pampas.  Twenty- 
five  periodicals  are  published  in  Buenos  Ayres,  sixteen  of  them  in  the  Spanish 
language. 

The  trade  of  the  country  is  largely  with  the  United  States. 
The  exports  are  hides,  horns,  tallow,  wool,  hair,  and  dried  beef; 
the  imports  are  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  hardware,  and  agri- 
cultural implements. 


Buenos  Ayres  is  a  large,  well-built  city,  with  many  huge  warehouses  and 
fine  churches.  It  is  the  seaport  of  the  La  Plata  basin  and  fourteen  lines  of 
steamers  connect  it  with  foreign  ports. 

Paraguay. — Paraguay  has  a  fertile  soil,  and  its  vegetable 
products  are  those  of  the  Torrid  and  Temperate  Zones. 

It  has  carried  on  protracted  wars,  and  is  a  weak  republic. 
The  commerce  is  small,  and  the  fine  natural  resources  of  the 
country  are  undeveloped. 

Uruguay.— The  republic  of  Uruguay  has  been  cursed  by 
many  revolutions.  Cattle  raising  and  sheep  farming  are  the 
great  industries;  but,  with  thousands  of  cows,  good  miilk  and 
nice  butter  are  unknown.  Little  grain  is  raised,  and  the  diet 
of  the  common  people  is  meat  and  hard  biscuit  such  as  is  used 
by  sailors. 

Montevideo  is  a  pleasant  city,  located  on  a  hill,  and  commanding  a  fine 
view  of  the  broad  estuary  of  the  river.  The  roofs  of  the  houses  are  flat  and  are 
surrounded  by  a  railing.  The  family  sits  on  the  roof  to  enjoy  the  cool  evenings 
after  the  warm  summer  days 


EUROPE. 


DESCRIPTION. 

Rank. —  Though  Europe  ranks  fifth  in  size  and  second  in 
population  among  the  grand  divisions  of  the  earth,  it  is  first  in 
civilization,  influence,  and  power. 

Name. —  Its  name  is  derived  from  the  word  ereb,  "dark," 
a  term  applied  by  the  people  of  the  far  East  when  Asia  was 
the  "Land  of  Light"  and  Europe  the  dark,  or  mysterious, 
country. 

"The  poets  derive  the  name  from  Europa,  the  daughter  of  a  Phoenician 
king.  Some  trace  it  to  an  er.stern  word  signifying  sunset,  or  the  west.  Others 
derive  it  from  two  Greek  words  meaning  wide  mew,  applied  first  to  the  country 
north  of  Greece,  in  contrast  with  the  narrow  limits  of  that  peninsula." 

Commercial  Advantages. — All  the  chief  cities  are  con- 
nected by  railways,  and  its  numerous  navigable  rivers  are  joined 
by  canals,  the  whole  forming  a  vast  net-work  of  land  and  water- 
ways, affording  unsurpassed  advantages  for  inland  commerce. 
The  deep  indentations  of  the  coast  open  the  greater  part  of  the 
continent  to  the  trade  of  the  world,  and  have  made  commer- 
cial nations,  and  quickened  every  branch  of  industry. 

An  American  who  visits  Western  Europe  is  surprised  to  see  the  fine  roads, 
the  carefully  tilled  fields,  the  well-preserved  forests,  the  abundance  of  laborers, 
the  number  of  women  at  work  in  the  fields,  and  the  number  of  cities  and  villages. 

Religion. — The  Christian  religion  prevails,  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic in  the  south,  the  Greek  Church  in  the  east,  the  Protestant 
in  the  center  and  the  northwest.  The  Turks  are  followers  of 
Mohammed,  whom  they  regard  as  the  "Prophet  of  God." 

Historical  Note. — "At  the  dawn  of  history  we  find  the  continent  already 
peoi:)led,  much  as  it  now  is,  by  Finns  in  the  north,  by  Slavs  in  the  east,  by 
Teutons  and  Celts  in  the  center  and  west,  by  Iberians,  Ligurians,  Itali,  Siculi, 
Greeks,  lUyrians,  and  Thracians  along  the  Mediterranean  seaboard. ' '  Repeated 
waves  of  migration  flowed  westward  from  the  Asiatic  steppes  to  mingle  with 
the  inhabitants  already  in  possession  of  the  land.  The  peninsula  of  Greece  first 
emerged  from  barbarism,  outstripping  all  other  parts  of  the  world  in  civiliza- 
tion. Italy,  the  central  peninsula,  next  gained  pre-eminence  and  gave  laws  to 
the  world.  Rome,  a  small  state,  said  to  have  been  founded  B.  C.  753,  extended 
its  power  gradually,  until  at  the  Christian  era  tlie  Roman  Empire  included 
Southern  and  Central  Europe,  Northern  Alrica,  and  Western  Asia.  Northern 
Europe  was  still  occupied  by  barbarians,  who  had  often  threatened  the  empire 
with  destruction  and,  in  A.  D.  476,  rushed  in  and  took  possession  of  the  capital. 
The  darkness  of  the  Middle  Ages  ensued. 


British  Isles. — The  British  Isles  consist  of  Great  Britain, 
Ireland,  and  many  small  islands  adjacent. 

England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  form  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  whose  sovereign  may  be 
a  king  or  a  queen. 

Government. — The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy,  the 
sovereign  being  required  to  rule  according  to  the  statutes  of 
Parliament.  Parliament  is  the  sole  law-making  power.  It  con- 
sists of  the  sovereign;  the  House  of  Lords,  whose  privileges 
are  hereditary;  and  the  House  of  Commons,  whose  members  are 
elected  by  the  people. 

British  Empire. — Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  with  the  Brit- 
ish possessions  in  the  Americas,  Africa,  Oceania,  and  Asia, 
equal  to  one-sixth  of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe  in  extent, 
constitute  the  British  Empire.  Its  chief  possessions  are  India, 
Australia,  Newfoundland,  Ceylon,  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

Its  Wealth, — The  foundation  of  the  wealth  of  Great  Britain 
lies  in  its  mild  climate,  copious  streams,  fertile  soil,  great  min- 
eral resources,  good  harbors,  advantageous  position  for  com- 
merce, and  the  energy  of  its  inhabitants. 

Chief  Industries. —  In  mining,  manufacturing,  and  com- 
merce, Great  Britain  ranks  first  among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

Minerals. — The  most  important  minerals  are  coal,  iron,  tin, 
lead,  copper,  zinc,  and  salt.  Coal  and  iron  are  the  most  abun- 
dant, the  mines  yielding  nearly  one-half  the  supply  of  the  world. 

About  150,000,000  tons  of  coal  are  mined  annually.  It  produces  the  heat 
by  which  the  iron  and  other  ores  are  smelted;  generates  the  steam  used  in 
working  the  mines;  in  driving  the  machinery  in  thousands  of  factories,  and  for 
propelling  trains  on  land,  and  ships  on  the  sea. 

Manufactures. — The  chief  manufactures  are  cotton  and 
woolen  goods,  iron,  and  steel,  including  raw  material  and  manu- 
factured articles. 

Commercial  Marine.— Its  vast  commerce  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  18,791  merchant  vessels,  manned  by  more  than  199,000 
seamen.     These  ships  spread  their  sails  on  every  sea,  and  carry 


EUEOPE— BEITI8H  ISLES. 


107 


the  products  of  British  mines  aud  manufactories  to  almost  every 

port  in  the  world.     They  return  with  wheat,  corn,  beef,  pork, 

tea,  coffee,  raw  cotton,  and  wool,  and  hundreds  of  other  articles 

needed  by  the  peox>le  at  home. 

Naval  Power. — Great  Britain  is  the  mightiest  naval  power  in  the  world. 
Its  commerce  is  protected  hy  a  fleet  of  2.58  ships  of  war,  most  of  them  ironclad, 
and  propelled  by  steam.     They  carry  over  60,000  men,  boys,  and  marines. 

England  and  Wales. —  That  portion  of  England  lying  to 
the  southeast  of  a  line  drawn  from  Plamboro  Head  to  Portland 


Bill  is  chief- 
ly devoted  to 
agriculture  and 
commerce.     In  the 
more  hilly  and  mountain" 
ous  part,  to  the  northwest,  are  the  great  mining  and  manufactur- 
ing districts  and  extensive  pasture  lands. 

In  the  agricultural  section  one  sees  well-tilled  farms  with  hedges,  rich  green 
meadows,  and  fields  of  wheat,  barley,  oats,  turnips,  and  flax.      The  pastures 


MAP  STUDIES. 


REVIEW   EXERCISES. 

Physical  Features. — Locate  and  describe  the  coast  waters,  peninsulas, 
capes,  islands,  mountains,  plains,  lakes,  and  great  rivers. 

Climate. — In  what  zones  does  the  continent  lie?  State  how  the  climate  is 
affected  by  mountains,  ocean  currents,  prevailing  winds,  and  rainfall. 

Plant  Zones. —  In  what  plant  zones  is  the  continent  situated? 

Probable  Industries. — State  the  probable  industries  of  diiferent  portions 
of  the  continent. 


General  Questions. —  How  many  political  divisions  in  Europe?  How  many 
of  the  countries  are  peninsulas?  Islands?  Which  is  the  largest  country  ?  The 
second  in  size?  The  smallest?  What  countries  border  on  the  Black  Sea ?  On 
the  Mediterranean?  On  the  Atlantic?  On  the  North  Sea?  Which  countries 
are  most  mountainous?  What  countries  lie  in  low,  or  level,  Europe?  What 
countries  are  best  situated  for  foreign  commerce?  Which  country  has  the 
longest  navigable  rivers  ? 

EXEBCISES.— Locate  and  describe  the  several  countries  of  Burope. 
Locate  important  cities. 

Sketch  a  map  showing'  political  divisions. 


UNST  t.  Q 


ETTHOPE— BRITISH  ISLES. 


lOd 


London,  showing  (1)  St.  James'  Park,  (2)  Duke  of  York's  Coliiiun,  (3)  National  Gallery  and  Nelson  Monument,  (4)  Horse  Guards  and  Admiralty,  (5)  St  James  Palace,  (6)  Westminster  Abbey, 

(7)  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  (8)  New  Houses  of  Parliament,  (9)  Tower,  (10)  Surrey  side  of  London. 


of  all  England  are  .stocked  with  fine  breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.     The 
southwestern  counties  are  famed  for  their  orcliards. 

In  the  mineral  section  are  hundreds  of  mines.  In  many  places  the  earth  is 
honeycombed,  and  thousands  of  men  and  boys  work  underground.  There  are 
immense  furnaces,  sending  up  their  columns  of  smoke;  and  fitctories,  turning 
out  ship  loads  of  goods,  made  from  the  products  of  the  mines,  or  from  raw 
material  brought  from  other  lands.  Large  manufacturing  cities  have  grown  up 
as  centers  of  the  different  industries. 

Wales  belongs  to  this  district.  It  is  a  wild,  mountainous 
country  noted  for  its  beautiful  scenery.  Its  wealth  is  in  its 
mines  and  quarries. 

England  has  many  cities  and  villages.  There  are  seventeen 
cities  each  with  more  than  100,000  inhabitants. 

Cities. — London,  the  largest  and  wealthiest  commercial  city  in  the  world, 
covers  122  square  miles  of  land,  and  has  over  4,000,000  inhabitants.  The 
Thames,  on  which  it  is  built,  is  from  600  to  900  feet  broad,  and  is  thronged 
with  shipping.  Immense  store-houses  full  of  goods  stand  along  its  wharves. 
Seventeen  bridges  span  the  river,  and  a  tunnel  passes  under  it.  A  railway 
runs  for  miles  underground  beneath  the  streets. 

Among  the  magnificent  public  buildings  are  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  514  by 
286  feet;  Westminster  Abbey,  in  which,  for  over  800  years,  England's  sovereigns 
have  been  crowned,  and  where  her  mightiest  dead  lie  buried;  the  Houses  of 
Parliament,  Westminster  Hall,  and  Buckingham  Palace.  The  Botanical  and 
Zoological  Gardens,  with  their  living  plants  and  animals  fjx>m  all  climes,  are 
interesting  places  in  the  neighborhood. 

Liverpool  is  the  second  city  in  population,  and  rivals  London  in  its  com- 
merce. It  is  the  chief  port  of  traffic  between  America  and  the  great  manufactur- 
ing cities  in  Western  England. — Manchester  is  the  center  of  the  cotton  manufac- 
tures. The  first  railway  in  Engliind  was  opened,  in  1830,  between  Manchester 
and  Liverpool. — Leeds  is  the  chief  seat  of  woolen  manufactures. — Birmingham 
is  noted  for  its  hardware,  Sheffield  for  its  cutlery,  and  Newcastle  for  its  export 
of  coal. — Plymouth  and  Portsmouth  are  great  naval  stations. — Merthyr  Tydvil, 
in  Wales,  owes  its  prosperity  to  its  coal  mines  and  iron  works. — Cardiff  is  a 
^oal-shipping  port. 

Scotland. — Scotland  may  be  divided  into  two  sections — the 
Highlands  and  the  Lowlands.  The  Highlands  are  rugged  and 
wild.  There  are  deep  glens,  with  many  small,  clear  lakes  called 
lochs,  which  are  often  bordered  by  high  cliffs  that  give  them  a 
peculiar  beauty.  The  Highlands  afford  fine  pasturage,  and  sup- 
port large  numbers  of  sheep  and  cattle.  The  Lowlands  are 
carefully  cultivated.    Barley,  oats,  and  wheat  are  raised. 

Coal,  iron,  lead,  slate,  and  granite  are  the  chief  minerals. 


The  pursuits  are  agriculture,  pastoral  husbandry,  mining, 

manufacturing,  ship  building,  commerce,  and  fishing.     The 

manufactures  and  exports  are  similar  to  those  of  England.     The 

herring  fisheries  on  the  northern  coast,  and  the  salmon  fisheries 

of  the  rivers,  employ  thousands  of  men. 

Cities. —  Edinburgh  is  the  seat  of  a  great  university,  and  has  several  large 
publishing  houses.  It  is  one  of  the  handsomest  cities  in  Europe,  and  is  called 
the  Modem  Athens.  It  contains  a  grand  statue  of  Walter  Scott,  in  sitting  pos- 
ture, with  his  dog  beside  him.  The  Castle,  a  strong  fortress,  stands  on  a  rock 
437  feet  high,  at  the  foot  of  which  is  Holyrood  Palace  of  the  Scottish  sover- 
eigns.—  Glasgow  is  an  important  seaport,  with  great  manufacturing  indtistries. 
In  the  neighborhood  is  the  headquarters  of  the  Clyde  ship-building  trade. 

Islands. —  The  Hebrides,  the  Orkney,  and  the  Shetland 
Islands  are  attached  to  Scotland.  They  are  rocky,  but  eon- 
tain  pasture  lands  suitable  for  hardy  sheep  and  ponies.  Their 
waters  abound  in  fish. 

Ireland. — The  surface  of  Ireland  consists  of  a  low  central 

plain,  with  mountains  here  and  there  near  the  coast.     There 

are  many  lakes,  called  loughs,  some  of  which  are  celebrated 

for  their  beauty. 

In  Central  Ireland  are  tracts  called  bogs,  extending  over  nearly  one-seventh 
of  its  area.  Many  of  these  are  covered  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  deep  with 
peat,  or  decayed  and  compressed  mosses  and  other  vegetable  matter.  Trunks 
of  pine,  oak,  yew,  and  other  trees,  as  well  as  the  remains  of  the  Irish  elk,  have 
been  found  imbedded  in  the  bog  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  Peat  is  cut 
and  dried,  and  large  quantities  are  used  for  fuel. 

Ireland  is  not  so  rich  in  minerals  as  Great  Britain,  and  ag- 
riculture. Including  dairying  and  cattle  raising,  is  the  chief  in- 
dustry. Its  mild,  moist  climate  favors  the  production  of  grasses, 
and  the  rich  green  of  its  pastures  has  given  it  the  name,  "Em- 
erald Isle." 

Muslin,  lace,  and  linen  are  manufactured.  Its  principal  ex- 
port trade  is  with  Great  Britain,  embracing  dairy  products, 
cattle,  flax,  and  linen. 

Cities. —  Dublin  is  one  of  the  finest  cities  in  Europe.  It  has  magnificent 
public  buildings  and  an  extensive  trade.  The  suburbs  are  celebrated  for  their 
beauty. — •  Belfast  is  the  second  city  in  size  and  first  in  manufactures. — Limerick 
is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  lace. 


MAP  STUDIES. 


General   Questions. — Which  is  the  largest  of  these  political  divisions? 
State  whether  the  coast  lines  indicate  good  harbors.     Is  the  situation  of  the 


British  Isles  favorable  or  unfavorable  to  foreign  commerce?    Why?     In  what 
plant  zones  do  the  islands  lie  ? 

EXERCISES.— Locate  and  describe  the  countries.    Locate  important 
cities.    Sketch  a  map  of  the  islands. 


EUEOPE  — NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN— FEANCE— BELGIUM— NETHERLANDS. 


Ill 


Norway  and  Sweden. —  The  kingdoms  of  Norway  and 
Sweden  have  the  same  ruler,  who  may  be  said  to  wear  two 
crowns,  and  both  governments  are  represented  abroad  by  the 
same  diplomatic  corps.  In  other  respects  each  country  has  its 
own  laws,  institutions,  army  and  navy. 

The  Scandinavians  are  a  brave,  hardy  race,  with  energy 
and  enterprise.  They  are  devotedly  attached  to  their  father- 
land, and  proudly  remember  their  ancestors,  the  Vikings,  who 
went  forth  in  ships  to  discover  and  conquer  the  world. 

Very  few  adults  are  entirely  illiterate.  Education  is  compulsory,  and  pub- 
lic instruction,  especially  in  Sweden,  is  in  a  very  satisfactory  state.  In  Norway 
education  is  gratuitous  from  the  age  of  eight  to  the  time  of  confirmation. 

Only  about  one-fortieth  of  Norway  is  fitted  for  cultivation,  but  Sweden  has 
more  fertile  land.  Wheat,  flax,  oats,  barley,  lye,  and  potatoes  are  grown,  but 
agriculture  is  not  the  greatest  industry. 

A  very  large  proportion  of 
the  inhabitants  live  by  min- 
ing, lumbering,  and  fishing. 
The  minerals  are  iron,  cop- 
per, zinc,  and  cobalt.  Swedish 
iron  and  steel  take  first  rank 
in  the  markets  of  the  world. 
The  mountain  slopes  in  the 
cential  and  southern  part  of 
the  i^eniusula  are  clothed  with 
pine,  fir,  and  birch,  furnishing 
fuel  for  smelting,  timber  for 
shipment,  for  house  building,  and  wood 
carving,  and  also  large  quantities  of  tar 
and  pitch. 

The  fisheries  of  Norway  are  of  great  impor- 
tance. Theriversteemwithsaliiion,  and  flueoyster 
beds  are  found.  Herring  swarm  on  the  southwest 
coast  and  the  waters  about  the  Lofoden  Islands  are 
alive  with  cod.  The  white  sails  of  the  hardy  fisher- 
men are  seen  all  along  the  coast. 

Cities. — Stockholm  is  called  the  Northern 
Venice,  and  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  north- 
ern cities.  It  is  built  on  seven  islands,  at  the 
outlet  of  Lake  Malar,  in  the  Baltic.  At  the  north 
lies  the  university  city  of  XJpsala. — Bergen  is  an 
important  town  and  one  of  the  centers  of  the  coast 
fisheries.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  fish  and  cod  liver 
oil. — Christiana  is  a  university  town  and  a  com- 
mercial seaport. 

France.  —  France  is  one  of  the  lead- 
ing nations  of  Europe,  and  it  ranks 
among  the  first  military  powers  of  the  world. 

The  people  are  fond  of  amusements,  and  are  noted  for  their 
taste,  politeness,  and  skill.  There  are  many  societies  of  learned 
men,  but  the  peasantry  are  ignorant.  Education  is  now  com- 
pulsory, and  the  common  schools  are  improving. 

Agriculture  is  a  leading  industry,  and  the  choicest  wines,  fruits,  and  grains 
are  produced.  The  sugar-beet  is  largely  grown  in  the  north  and  east.  The 
vine  has  been  cultivated  for  centuries.  The  mulberry  is  grown  for  its  leaves 
which  are  the  food  of  the  silk- worm. 

France  holds  a  high  place  as  a  manufacturing  country.     Its 

goods  are  famed  for  taste,  elegance,  durability,  and  cheapness. 

Its  cottons  rank  next  to  those  of  England,  while  its  silks,  laces, 

linens,  patent-leather  goods,  gloves,  porcelain,  perfumery,  and 

wares  of  gold,  silver,  and  bronze  are  admired  by  all  the  world. 


Coal  and  iron  are  the  most  important  minerals,  and  the 
products  of  iron  and  steel  are  extensive. 

The  commerce  of  France  extends  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Its  exports  are  wines,  brandies,  silks,  cottons,  gloves,  laces, 
jewelry,  olive  oil,  and  preserved  fruits. 

Cities. — Paris,  next  to  London,  is  the  largest  city  in  Europe.  It  is  the  great 
center  of  art  and  fashion,  and  is  noted  for  its  fine  buildings,  libraries,  art  gal- 
leries, public  gardens,  and  places  of  amusement.  The  city  lies  in  a  basin  of 
the  Seine,  and  is  surrounded  by  heights  from  which  one  looks  down  on  a  sea 
of  hou.ses. 

Lyons,  the  second  city  in  size,  is  the  seat  of  the  silk  manufactures,  intro- 
duced by  the  Italians  in  the  15th  century. — Marseilles,  the  great  seaport  in 
the  south,  and  the  fourth  in  Europe,  was  founded  before  Christ  by  Fhocaeans. — 
Bordeaux  is  the  chief  wine  port. 

Belgium. — No  other  country  in 

Europe  has  so  dense  a  population 

as  the  little  kingdom  of  Belgium, 

with  its  485  inhabitants  to  the 

square  mile. 

The  villages  are  very  numerous,  many 
of  them  numbering  8, 000  souls.  In  the  low, 
rich  tracts  between  Brussels  and  the  coast, 
the  land  is  cut  up  into  countless  patches, 
too  small  to  be  called  farms,  and  so  carefully 
tilled  that  the  country  is  like  one  vast 
garden. 

Grain,  flax,  hemp,  hops,  sugar- 
beets,  garden  vegetables,  and 
grasses  are  cultivated,  and  the 
domestic  animals  are  reared 
in  abundance.  Iron,  coal,  and 
other  minerals  are  found  in 
the  more  hilly  regions  in  the 
southeast. 

Belgium  is  a  great  manu- 
facturing country,  producing 
carpets,  laces,  cottons,  wool- 
ens, linens,  firearms,  engines, 
and  cutlery. 

Cities. — Brussels  has  been  called 
"Little  Paris."  Its  lace  and  carpets 
are  prized  in  all  civilized  lands. 
There  are  fine  streets  with  sumptuous 
dwellings.  The  field  of  Waterloo  is 
near  the  city. — Antwerp  is  the  great 
commercial  center. — Ghent  is  the 
center  of  the  cotton-spinning  indus- 
try. 

Netherlands. — The  Netherlands,  or  Holland,  is  a  flat  coun- 
try. Much  of  it  lies  below  the  sea  level,  and  even  the  river-beds 
are,  in  some  places,  higher  than  the  cultivated  lands  adjoining. 
The  sea  has  been  fenced  out  and  the  rivers  fenced  in  by  enor- 
mous embankments  called  dikes.  On  dikes,  crossing  the  country 
in  all  directions,  are  canals  which  serve  the  purpose  of  drainage 
and  of  navigation. 

Trees  are  often  planted  along  the  canals,  in  the  shade  of  which  people  travel 
in  boats  instead  of  wheeled  carriages.  The  low  lands  between  the  dikes  are 
drained  by  pumps,  generally  worked  by  wind  power.  Many  shallow  lakes  have 
been  drained  in  this  way.    The  water  is  pumped  into  the  canals  and  flows  away. 

The  people  pay  great  attention  to  education,  every  village 

having  an  elementary  school.     Everybody  works,  and  strolling 

paupers  are  unknown. 


MAP  STUDIES. 


Locate  and  describe  France,  Belgium,  Netherlands,  Deimiark,  the  German  Empire,  Switzerland,  Austria,  Roumania,  Servia,  Monte- 
negro, Bulgaria.     Locate  their  capitals  and  chief  cities. 


112 


EUEOPE— DENMAEK— GEEMAN  EMPIEE— AUSTEIAN  EMPIEB. 


The  moist,  rich  soil  is  best  snited  to  grass,  and  cattle  are  reared  in  large  nnm- 

'   bers.    Butter  and  cheese  are  made  and  the  country  is  one  great  dairy.    The  fields 

are  small,  and  flowers,  vegetables,  flax,  hemp,  etc.,  are  cultivated  with  great  care. 

Many  live  by  fishing  for  herring,  cod,  and  oysters.    The  manufactures  include 

earthenware,  linen,  paper,  leather,  oil,  silks,  and  woolens. 

Commerce  is  extensive  and  a  large  trade  is  carried  on  with 

the  East  Indies.    The  foreign  possessions  of  this  little  country 

include  Java,  Celebes,  parts  of  Papua,  Borneo,  and  Sumatra,  and 

settlements  in  South  America  and  Africa. 

Cities. — Amsterdam  is  the  great  commercial  centea  The  houses  are  built  on 
piles,  and  canals  run  along  the  center  of  most  of  the  streets.  Thirty  thousjind 
Jews,  representing  immense  wealth,  reside  in  the  city.— Rotterdam  is  a  naval 
and  commercial  port. 

Denmark. ^ — This  state  has  a  government  with  executive 
power  vested  in  a  king;  and  legislative  power  in  a  king  and 
EigStag  jointly.  One  branch  of  the  Eigstag  is  elected  by  the 
people. 

Elementary  education  is  general,  compulsory,  and  gratuitous 
to  the  poor.  There  are  parochial  schools,  middle  schools,  col- 
leges, and  a  university.  Denmark  is  said  to  have  a  larger  per 
cent  of  its  children  in  school  than  any  other  country  in  Europe. 

Nearly  one-half  the  population  live  by  agriculture.  The  farms  are  small  and 
wett  cultivated.  Grains,  vegetables,  and  stock  are  raised.  The  fiords  abound 
in  cod  and  herring,  and  fishing  is  an  imporbmt  industry. 

The  manufactures  are  beet-sugar,  ironware,  paper,  spirits,  linen,  and  woolen 
goods.  There  is  a  mercantile  marine  numbering  thousands  of  vessels,  and  the 
exports  and  imports  are  large. 

Cities. —  Copenhagen  (merchants'  haven)  is  a  strongly  fortified  seaport  and 
the  center  of  all  the  learned  institutions  of  the  country.  It  has  many  fine  pub- 
lic buildings  and  palatial  residences. —  Aalborg  is  an  important  seaport. 

The  German  Empire.— The  German  Empire  consists  of 
26  states,  of  which  Prussia  is  the  most  powerful.  The  king  of 
Prussia  is  styled  Emperor  of  Germany.  His  title  to  the  Crown 
is  hereditary. 

Government. — The  government  is  a  monarchy  with  a  par- 
liament of  two  houses,  the  Bundesrath  and  the  Eeichstag.  The 
members  of  the  Bundesrath  are  appointed  annually  by  the  sev- 
eral state  governments,  but  the  members  of  the  Eeichstag  are 
chosen  by  vote  of  the  people. 

Education. — ^The  people  are  noted  for  industry  and  intel- 
ligence, and  attendance  at  school  is  compulsory.  There  are  21 
universities  of  high  rank,  many  normal  schools  for  the  educa- 
tion of  teachers,  and  a  large  number  of  academies  and  common 
schools.  Prussia  has  long  been  famed  for  its  interest  in  edu- 
cation. 

Agriculture. — Agriculture  receives  great  attention.  Schools 
of  agriculture  and  model  farms  have  been  established  in  all  the 
states  for  improvement  in  the  methods  of  husbandry.  Wheat, 
rye,  and  other  cereals,  vegetables,  fruits,  and  green  crops  are 
cultivated.  The  vine  is  very  successfully  grown  in  the  Ehine 
Valley. 

Manufactures. — Manufacturing  industries  are  large,  but 
many  articles  are  imported.  The  woolen,  linen,  and  iron  man- 
ufactures are  extensive.  The  Krupp  steel  works,  in  West- 
phalia, where  cannon  are  made,  are  the  most  extensive  in  the 
world.  In  the  splendid  forests  of  High  Germany,  in  the  south, 
vast  quantities  of  wooden  goods  are  produced. 

Among  the  mineral  products,  coal,  iron,  and  zinc  are  most  important.  As 
producers  of  zinc,  Germany  and  Belgium  surpass  all  the  restof  the  world.  Enor- 
mous beds  of  rock-salt  are  found  in  many  provinces,  but  they  are  most  abundant 
in  Prussian  Saxony. 

Commerce. — There  is  an  excellent  railway  system,  and  its 
commercial  fleet  is  now  extensive,  carrying  on  a  large  trade  with 


foreign  lands.     The  exports  are  grain,  flax,  linen,  pottery,  wool, 
zinc,  and  manufactured  goods. 

Cities . —  Berlin,  one  of  the  five  great  cities  of  Europe,  is  noted  for  its  literary 
institutions,  museums,  and  picture  galleries  Its  university  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  in  the  world. —  Hamburg  is  the  third  seaport  in  Europe,  ranking 
next  to  London  and  Liverpool. — Bremen,  the  second  seaport  of  Germany;  Leip- 
sic,  metropolis  of  the  book  trade;  Breslau,  a  great  wool  market;  Strasburg, 
with  its  wonderful  cathedral;  and  Dresden,  an  attractive  and  channingly  situ- 
ated town,  are  among  the  other  important  cities. 

Switzerland.— The  republic  of  Switzerland  consists  of  25 
little  states,  or  cantons,  as  they  are  called,  each  governed  by  its 
own  constitution.  Some  of  the  cantons  are  so  small  that  no 
representatives  are  needed,  as  every  man  can  help  make  the 
laws.  Other  states  are  larger  and  have  adopted  the  representa- 
tive form  of  government. 

Great  attention  is  paid  to  education.  Geneva,  Basle,  Berne,  and  Zurich 
have  excellent  universities.  The  last  has  a  famous  polytechnic  institution, 
with  splendid  museums  and  laboratories. 

Agriculture,  horticulture,  and  wine  making  are  the  chief  occupations  in  the 
lowlands.  Sheep  farming,  with  little  tillage,  and  cattle  breeding,  with  dairy- 
ing, are  the  industries  of  the  liighlands. 

Watches,  jewelry,  silks,  cottons,  wood  carvings,  and  cheese  are  leading  man- 
ufactures and  exports,  and  they  are  sent  to  every  part  of  the  world. 

Many  hotels  in  the'  Alpine  regions  are  supported  by  travelers  who  are  at- 
tracted by  the  fine  scenery. 

Cities. —  Geneva,  once  called  the  "Calvinistic  Rome,"  is  now  known  as  a 
seat  of  gayety  and  a  center  of  learning. — ^  Basle  is  supposed  to  be  the  wealthiest 
town  in  the  republic. 

The  Austrian  Empire.— The  Austrian  Empire,  or  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, consists  of  Austria  and  Hungary,  eacli  having  its 
own  legislature  and  laws,  but  united  under  one  sovereign  and  a 
general  parliament  called  the  Delegations.  The  emperor  of  Aus- 
tria is  king  of  Hungary. 

People.— The  inhabitants  belong  principally  to  three  dis- 
tinct races:  Slavs,  Germans,  Magyars,  or  Hungarians.  Jews 
are  also  numerous.  The  Slavs  form  nearly  one  half  the  popu- 
lation, but  they  are  not  the  most  influential  class. 

Education. — Popular  education  now  receives  great  attention. 
Every  child  of  suitable  age  is  compelled  to  attend  the  common 
school,  unless  its  education  is  provided  for  in  some  other  way. 
There  are  several  universities,  besides  middle  schools,  or  gym- 
nasiums, and  schools  for  mining  and  military  science.  A  large 
standing  army  is  maintained,  and  every  able-bodied  male  citizen 
performs  military  service  for  twelve  years. 

Although  the  great  Hungarian  and  other  plains  are  included  in  the  empire, 
with  the  exception  of  Switzerland,  it  is  the  most  mountainous  country  in 
Europe.  The  mountains  are  well  wooded,  and  abound  in  useful  metals  and 
minerals. 

Though  agriculture  is  carried  on  with  less  skill  than  in  some 
other  European  countries,  the  plains  are  called  the  "Granaries 
of  Europe." 

Hundreds  of  millions  of  bushels  of  the  grains  are  raised.  Olive  and  mul- 
berry groves,  orchards,  and  vineyards  are  seen  in  the  valleys  of  the  south.  The 
wines  of  Hungary  are  celebrated  for  their  excellence.  The  mountain  slopes 
furnish  pasturage,  where  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  are  raised. 

Manufactures. — Linen,  leather  goods,  woolens,  iron  goods, 
and  beer  are  among  the  chief  manufactures. 

Minerals. — There  are  inexhaustible  stores  of  coal  and  iron, 

and  mining  is  a  highly  developed  industry.     Quicksilver,  gold, 

zinc,  and  arsenic  are  found. 

The  mines  of  rock-salt  and  brine  springs  in  Galicia  are  the  most  celebrated 
in  the  world.  At  Wieliczka,  (We-litch'-ka)  the  bed  of  salt  has  a  depth  of  4,000 
feet,  and  the  galleries  belonging  to  the  mines  have  an  aggregate  length  of  more 
than  fifty  mileSi 


EUROPE  — AUSTEI AN   EMPIRE— PORTUGAL— SPAIN. 


Commerce. —  The  imports  and  ex- 
ports of  the  empii'e  are  extensive,  con- 
sisting of  grain,  minerals,  and  manufac- 
tured articles,  including  glass  and  wine. 

Cities. — Vienna  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant  capitals  in 

Europe.     Spacious  boulevards  surround  the  heart  of  the  city, 

where  are  Ibund  the  imperial  palace,  government  offices,  residences 

of  the  nobles,  and  fine  commercial  houses.    In  the  very  center  is  the  gothic 

cathedral  of  St.  Stephen,  whose  graceful  spire  is  475  feet  high.    Manufactures  of 

silk,  cotton,  porcelain,  leather,  and  musical  instruments  add  greatly  to  its  wealth.     Its 

railways  radiate  in  aU  directions. — Buda-Pesth,  the  capital  of  Hungary,  is  a  great  emporium. 

Portugal. — The  little  kingdom  of  Portugal,  now  among  the  weakest  in 
Europe,  was,  during  the  first  half  of  the  15th  century,  one  of  the  great 
powers.     The  wealth  of  the  Indies  flowed  into  its  harbora,  and  the  com- 
merce of  the  world  then  centered  at  Lisbon. 

The  people  are  polite  and  hospitable,  but  much  more  fond  of  music, 
dancing,  and  bull  fights  than  of  labor.    Education  is  neglected,  and  the  lower 
^  classes  are  ignorant  and  very  poor. 

.\griculture  is  in  a  low  state,  and  the  wagons,  plows,  and  other  farm  tools  are  rude  in  construction. 

The  or.inge,  lemon,  fig,  peach,  walnut,  and  almond  are  raised  over  the  whole  country.     There  are  large 

native  groves  of  cork  trees  and  date  palms;  the  olive,  mulberry,  and  vine  are  grown.    Cattle,  horses,  and 

lEr'^I^^'''^'^'P  "'"6 '■'^^s^'i  "1  the  north. 

■>^^/?/i   HOUS^'^i}' — ^Progress  is  being  made  in  manufactures  and  commerce,  but  these  industries  are  in  a  backward  state.     Foreign 

trade  is  principally  with  Great  Britain  and  Brazil.    There  are  but  few  railroads,  and  the  public  highways  are  very  poor. 

Cities. — Lisbon,  with  its  palace-crowned  heights  overlooking  the  beautiful  estuary  of  the  Tagus,  competes  with  Genoa  and  Naples  for  the  palm 
of  beauty.  —  Oporto  exports  wines,  and  is  the  chief  manufacturing  city. 

Spain. — Spain,  once  in  the  front  rank,  is  now  a  second-class  power.     Many  of  the  inhabitants  can  neither  read  nor 

'        write,  but  more  attention  is  now  being  paid  to  education. 

No  other  country  in  Europe  is  so  rich  in  metals  and  minerals,  but,  through  want  of  enterprise  in  the  inhabitants,  its  resources  are  undeveloped.     Its  quick- 
silver mines  are  famous,  and  it  produces  nearly  half  the  lead  of  Europe.     Precious  stones  are  found  in  many  places. 


Vegetables  and  garden  plants  are  grown,  and  orchards  of  semi-tropical  fruits  are  numerous  and  extensive, 
is  an  important  industry. 

The  chief  exports  are  wines,  silks,  olive  oil,  raisins,  cork,  wool,  quicksilver,  lead,  and  salt. 


Cattle  raising 


Madrid  is  situated  on  a  barren  plateau.  Around  the  grand  square  are 
rows  of  splendid  buildings,  including  several  hotels.  Fine  cafes  are  seen  along 
the  principal  streets.  The  Isabella  Canal  supplies  an  abundance  of  pure  water, 
brought  from  hills  more  than  60  miles  distant,  and  it  also  serves  to  irrigate  the 
country  around. 

Italy. — The  kingdom  of  Italy  consists  of  69  provinces,  all 
named  after  their  chief  cities.  The  government  is  a  constitu- 
tional monarchy,  with  a  senate  appointed  for  life,  and  a  large 
number  of  deputies  chosen  by  the  people. 

Several  millions  of  dollars  are  annually  given  by  the  gov- 
ernment for  the  support  of  common  schools,  and  it  has  also 
provided  20  universities  and  70  lyceums  for  higher  education. 
Though  great  progress  is  being  made,  the  census  shows  that 
over  50  per  cent  of  the  people  are  unable  to  read  or  write. 


EUROPE— ITALY— GREECE— TUEKEY— THE  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE. 


115 


That  a  high  state  of  culture  exists  in  the  upper  classes  is  shown  by  Italian 
literature,  and  by  the  numerous  museums  and  art  galleries  that  form  the  pride 
of  many  cities. 

Italy  is  the  great  store-house  of  painting  and  sculpture,  and  men  travel  from 
all  lands  to  see  the  works  of  the  "masters  of  art,"  some  of  whom  flourished 
centuries  ago. 

The  agricultural  lands  are  divided  into  different  regions,  according  to  ele- 
vation. There  are  the  rich  valleys  of  the  Po,  the  slopes  and  higher  valleys  of 
the  Apennines,  and  the  low  plains  near  the  coast.  In  some  provinces  great 
progress  has  been  made  in  agriculture,  but  in  most,  antiquated  tools  are  still 
used.  The  products  having  the  greatest  commercial  value  are  silk,  wine,  and 
oil,  oranges,  lemons,  citrons,  and  other  fruits,  dried  and  fresh,  together  with 
chestnuts,  butter,  and  cheese. 

Piedmont  exports  silks,  velvets,  and  woolens;  choice  per- 
fumery, and  straw  goods,  including  hats,  come  from  Tuscany; 
glass  and  beads  from  Venice;  corals  from  Naples;  and  beautiful 
wrought  marbles  from  Carrara  and  Lucca. 

Iron,  sulphur,  borax,  aud  marble  are  the  chief  mineral  prod- 
ucts and  exports. 

Cities.— Kome,  founded  752  B.  C.,once  called  the  "Mistress  of  the  World," 
is  a  city  of  art  and  artists.  The  number  of  museums  containing  collections  of 
art  is  very  great,  and  hundreds  of  churches  of  every  age  contain  interesting  ob- 
jects. The  papal  palace,  near  St.  Peter's,  called  the  Vatican,  is  said  to  contain 
4,000  apartments.  The  columns  of  Trajan  and  Antoninus  are  of  pure  white 
marble,  120  feet  high.  Outside  of  the  present  city  are  the  ruins  of  a  vast  amphi- 
theater, called  the  Coliseum,  which  was  capable  of  seating  80,000  spectators. 
— Naples  has  a  beautiful  situation  on  the  Bay  of  Naples.  A  few  miles  away  are 
the  partially  excavated  cities  of  Herculaueum  and  Pompeii,  which  were  buried 
by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  A.  D.  79. 

Montenegro. — Montenegro  (Black  Mountain)  is  a  small, 
independent  principality.  Its  people  are  ignorant  and  lead  a 
rough  life.  Agriculture  is  in  a  very  rude  state.  There  is  little 
trade  In  the  country. 

Servia. — The  people  of  this  little  kingdom  are  occupied 
almost  wholly  in  agriculture,  and  especially  in  stock  breeding. 
The  land  is  parceled  out  in  small  plots,  and,  as  the  farmers  are 
not  able  to  purchase  machinery,  half  the  land  is  fallow  and  the 
rest  is  poorly  cultivated.  Grazing  is  carried  on  more  success- 
fully. 

The  raising  of  pigs,  which  fatten  on  the  acorns  and  walnuts  in  the  extensive 
forests,  is  the  greatest  source  of  wealth.    Millions  of  hogs  are  annually  exiwrted 

The  villages  consist  mainly  of  mud  huts.  The  state  supports  schools  in  the 
largest  places.  Belgnule  contains  an  academy  and  a  ladies'  college,  said  to  be 
unequaled  by  any  similar  school  in  Europe. 

Roumania. —  The  kingdom  of  Roumania  may  be  divided 
into  a  highland,  a  hilly  central,  aud  a  lowland  region.  The 
highlands  are  rich  in  game,  timber  and  minerals  scarcely 
touched  by  the  hand  of  man.  The  hilly  central  districts  feed 
countless  herds,  and  grazing  is  the  great  industry  of  this  sec- 
tion.    The  lowlands  form  one  of  the  granaries  of  Europe. 

All  the  cereals  are  raised  and  also  magnificent  fruits,  but  the  people  are  too 
careless  and  indolent  to  make  the  most  of  the  resources  of  their  country. 

Three-fourths  of  the  whole  population  belong  to  the  peasant  class,  many  of 
whom  live  in  mud  hovels,  sunk  in  the  ground,  with  windows  but  little  above  the 
roadway,  and  with  roofs  thatched  with  straw  or  cornstalks.  All  the  small  do- 
mestic animals  live  with  the  household.  Strolling  beggars  and  ragged  gypsy 
children  are  often  seen. 

Bulgaria. — The  principality  of  Bulgaria  has  a  government  of 
its  own,  but  pays  tribute  to  Turkey.  Agriculture  and  grazing 
are  the  chief  industries. 

Roumelia. — Eastern  Roumelia  forms  a  part  of  Bulgaria. 

Greece. — Hellas,  or  ancient  Greece,  was  one  of  the  great  na- 
tions of  the  earth,  renowned  for  freedom,  art,  and  civilization. 

For  nearly  400  years  the  country  was  subject  to  Turkey,  and  submitted  to 
the  most  degnwling  oppression.  In  1821  the  Greeks  began  a  hard  struggle  for 
independence,  which  at  last  succeeded  through  the  intervention  of  Great  Britain 
and  other  powers. 


The  government  is  now  a  monarchy,  with  a  legislature  elected  by  universal 
suffrage.  The  state  has  organized  schools  of  three  grades,  and  the  lowest  must 
be  attended  by  all  children  between  five  and  twelve. 

The  chief  wealth  of  Greece,  derived  from  the  soil,  consists  in  its  southern 
fruits,  including  olives,  figs,  lemons,  and  dried  grapes,  called  currants,  from 
Corinth,  a  city  from  which  they  are  exported-  Cotton  is  grown  in  some  parte. 
Honey  is  produced  in  large  quantities. 

The  foreign  commerce  of  the  country  is  quite  large.  The  Greeks  carry  on 
the  chief  part  of  the  commerce  of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean  and  the  Black  Sea. 

Athens  was  founded  1556  B.  C. ,  and  in  the  vicinity  are  many  antiquities. 

Turkey.— Turkey  in  Europe  is  but  a  part  of  the  vast  Otto- 
man Empire,  which  extends  over  Asia  Minor,  Western  Arabia, 
and  portions  of  Northern  Africa. 

The  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy,  and  the  sultan 
is  the  "Protector  of  the  Faith"  as  well  as  the  ruler  of  the  state. 
There  is  no  hereditary  nobility,  as  in  most  monarchies,  and 
any  private  citizen  may  be  appointed  to  fill  the  highest  oflBice. 
Even  the  sultan  himself  may  be  the  son  of  a  slave  mother. 

The  Turks  are  the  dominant,  but  not  the  most  nameioos,  race.  There  are 
Slavonians,  Armenians,  Jews,  Greeks,  and  gypsies. 

Education  is  in  a  very  backward  state. 

The  implements  of  husbandry  are  extremely  rude.  In  many  provinces  the 
wealth  of  the  people  consists  in  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats.  Bees  and  silk-worms 
are  kept  with  great  success.  Fishing  and  sponge  gathering  are  carried  on  along 
the  coast.     All  the  cereals,  vegetables,  and  southern  fruits  are  produced. 

Mining  is  neglected,  and  all  the  trades  are  pursued  in  the 
old  way,  without  the  aid  of  modern  machinery.  Turkish  car- 
pets, leather  goods,  and  arms  are  distinguished  for  excellence. 
Commerce  is  in  the  hands  of  other  nations. 

Constantinople  is  situated  on  the  beautiful  harbor  called  the  "Golden 
Horn."  The  streets  are  narrow  and  filthy.  The  glittering  minarets  and  domes 
of  the  mosques  give  the  city  a  splendid  appearance  from  the  Bosporus.  The 
mosque  of  St.  Sophia  is  famed  for  its  beauty. 

The  Russian  Empire. — The  Russian  Empire  includes  one- 
half  of  Europe  and  one-third  of  Asia,  or  about  one-seventh  of 
the  land  surface  of  the  globe. 

Its  emperor,  called  the  Czar,  rules  88,000,000  subjects,  belonging  in  Rus- 
sian Europe  alone,  to  one  hundred  different  peoples,  speaking  forty  distinct  lan- 
guages. He  is  also  the  head  of  the  Greek  Church,  which  includes  the  greater 
part  of  the  inhabitants. 

On  entering  Russia,  one  finds  the  Tuanners,  customs,  dress,  langu.age,  and 
even  the  coins  different  from  those  of  other  countries  in  Europe.  The  churches 
and  house-tops  are  often  painted  sky-blue,  gold,  green,  or  dark  blue  with  silver 
stars.  The  peasants,  or  day  laborers,  dwell  in  small  cabins  with  thatched  roofs, 
usually  without  chimneys.  Many  of  the  higher  classes  are  well  educated,  but 
the  millions,  who  were  once  serfs  or  slaves,  are  ignorant,  though  schools  are  in- 
creasing. 

Lumbering  and  hunting  are  the  chief  employments  in  the 
great  northern  forests;  but  agriculture  receives  most  attention 
in  the  vast  fertile  region  of  Middle  Russia,  and  on  the  black 
lands  in  the  south.  Immense  herds  of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep 
are  seen  on  the  grassy  steppes. 

Many  articles  are  manufactured  for  home  use,  and  mining  is 
a  leading  industry  in  the  Ural  Mountains. 

The  chief  exports  are  wheat,  flax,  hemp,  linseed,  timber, 

wool,  leather,  tallow  and  other  cattle  products. 

Trade  is  carried  on  by  means  of  fairs.  At  Nijni  Novgorod,  the  great  fair 
continues  two  months,  and  is  attended  by  250,000  people  from  all  parts  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  Many  of  the  goods  are  brought  from  the  far  East  by  cara- 
vans of  camels  and  by  dog  trains. 

Cities. — St.  Petersburg  is  one  of  the  grandest  of  European  capitals.  The 
river  Neva,  on  both  sides  of  which  the  city  is  built,  is  a  mile  wide,  and  there 
are  noble  quays,  streets,  and  squares,  besides  grand  market  places  and  magnifi' 
cent  public  buildings. 

Moscow  is  the  holy  city  of  the  Russians,  with  convents,  churches,  and  chimes. 
The  churches  are  adorned  with  towers  and  domes,  gilded  and  silvered  over  or 
j)ainted  in  gay  colors.  Every  dome  has  a  gilt  cross  attached  to  the  roof  with 
heavy  burnished  chains,  all  of  which  glitter  in  the  sunlight. — Odessa  is  a  wheat 
port  on  the  Black  Sea. 


ASIA. 


MAP  STUDIES. 

REVIEW   EXERCISES. 

Physical  Features. — Locate  and  describe  the  coast  waters,  peninsulas,  capes, 
islands,  plateaus,  deserts,  mountains,  lakes,  inland  seas,  and  great  rivers. 

Climate. —  In  what  zones  does  Asia  lie?  State  how  the  climate  is  affected 
by  mountains,  slopes,  ocean  currents,  winds,  and  rainfall. 

Plant  Zones. —  In  what  plant  zones  is  the  continent  situated? 

Probable  Industries. — Name  the  probable  industries  of  different  regions, 
and  give  reasons  for  your  conclusions. 

General  Questions.  —  How  many  countries  in  Asia.  Name  the  largest. 
The  smallest.  Name  six  islands  in  the  order  of  their  size,  beginning  with  the 
largest.  What  countries  are  peninsulas?  What  countries  are  washed  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean?  By  the  Indian  Ocean?  What  countries  have  no  sea  coast? 
What  countries  are  partly  included  in  High  Asia?  Low  Asia?  What  countries 
include  deserts  ?     Which  countries  are  best  watered  ? 

Which  countries  are  most  favorably  situated  for  commerce  by  sea?  What 
portion  of  the  continent  is  most  thickly  peopled?  What  waters  will  a  ship 
cross  in  sailing  from  Shanghai  to  London?     From  Calcutta  to  New  York? 

EXERCISES.— Locate  and  describe  the  countries.  Locate  important 
cities.     Sketch  a  map  of  the  continent,  indicatingr  political  divisions. 

DESCRIPTION. 

European  Influence. — While  Europe  is  but  a  peninsula  of 
Asia,  the  latter,  with  its  vast  territory  and  teeming  millions  of 
people,  is  largely  subject  to  European  power. 

Siberia,  including  one-third  of  the  continent,  is  but  a  prov- 
ince of  Eussia,  its  people  bowing  to  its  emblem,  the  "Bear." 
The  British  queen,  styled  "Empress  of  India,"  is  sovereign  of 
the  great  peninsula,  a  part  of  Farther  India,  Ceylon,  and  other 
large  islands;  and  holds  treaty  rights  with  Afghanistan  and  with 
Beloochistan.  Asia  Minor  and  a  portion  of  Arabia  are  under  the 
"Crescent,"  the  emblem  of  the  sultan  of  Turkey.  France,  too, 
has  a  foothold  in  Anam  and  Cambodia.  Even  China  and  Japan, 
under  European  influence,  have  opened  their  ports  to  the  trade 
of  the  world. 

Inhabitants. — Asia,  supposed  to  be  the  cradle  of  the  race, 
contains  two-thirds  of  the  human  family,  but  its  people  are  not 
scattered  evenly  over  its  surface.  The  tundras  of  the  north,  the 
great  deserts  of  Mongolia,  Turkestan,  and  Arabia;  the  bleak 
plateaus  of  the  "Eoof  of  the  World"  are  almost  uninliabited, 
and  the  greater  portion  of  Siberia,  Thibet,  Persia,  and  Arabia 
are  occupied  by  a  scanty  nomadic  population.  India,  China, 
and  Japan  contain  nearly  one-half  of  mankind. 

The  condition  of  the  inhabitants  of  Asia  seems  to  depend  more  on  climate 
than  on  the  race  to  which  they  belong.  North  of  the  parallel  of  60°,  people 
live  by  hunting  and  fishing;  pastoral  tribes  occupy  the  heart  of  the  continent 
between  the  60th  and  35th  parallels,  and  large  portions  of  Persia  and  Arabia 
still  further  south;  in  China,  Japan,  India,  and  Farther  India  men  live  by  agri- 
culture, and  have  settled  and  more  or  less  civilized  communities. 

Religion.— While  Christianity  is  slowly  spreading  under 
the  influence  of  missionaries,  the  Buddhist,  Brahminic,  and  Mo- 
hammedan religions  still  prevail.  Brahminism  is  professed  by 
180,000,000  of  the  people  of  India,  and  Mohammedanism  by 
50,000,000.  Although  Buddhism  is  the  state  religion  of  China, 
the  learned  Chinese  are  followers  of  Confucius,  a  philosopher, 
who  lived  in  the  sixth  century  before  Christ. 

Cities'.— Many  of  the  renowned,  ancient  cities  of  Asia,  such  as  Pekin,  Bag- 
dad, Ispahan,  Shiraz,  and  Goa  have  lost  their  greatness.   The  chief  cities  of  to-day 


are  such  as  owe  mnch  of  their  growth  to  foreign  commerce,  whose  "meteoric 
flag  flies  over  all  the  seas;"  Calcutta,  Bombay,  Madras,  Singapore,  Penang,  Can- 
ton, Shanghai,  Tokio,  and  Hong  Kong  are  examples.  There  are  no  towns  that 
can  compare  with  London,  Paris,  Vienna,  or  New  York. 

Commercial  Routes. — We  found  Europe  full  of  railways, 
canals,  and  public  roads.  The  British  have  opened  10,000 
miles  of  railway  in  India,  Japan  has  made  a  good  beginning, 
and  Eussia  is  pushing  a  line  from  the  Ciispian  toward  Central 
Asia.  With  these  exceptions,  the  whole  continent  is  without 
railroads,  and,  outside  of  British  India,  there  are  no  such  pub- 
lic highways  as  are  seen  in  Europe. 

There  is  no  highway  from  India  to  China,  to  Thibet,  to  Central  Asia,  or  to  the 
Russian  domains.  India  and  China  have  navigable  riveis,  and  the  latter  has 
many  canals,  but  vast  regions  of  Asia  are  without  water-ways,  and  trade  is  car- 
ried on  by  means  of  caravans. 

There  are  large  portions  of  the  continent  but  little  known  to  western  na- 
tions, and  much  remains  to  be  learned  about  those  countries  and  peoples  whose 
names  we  often  hear. 

Asiatic  Russia  consists  of  Siberia,  Eussian  Turkestan,  and 
Trans  Caucasia. 

Most  of  this  vast  region  is  thinly  peopled.  Three-fourths 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Siberia  are  Eussian  exiles  and  their  de- 
scendants.    Schools  are  few,  and  ignorance  prevails. 

The  products  and  exports  are  furs  from  the  great  forest 
belt;  grains,  cattle,  and  skins  from  the  agricultural  and  graz- 
ing regions  in  the  south;  silver,  iron,  and  copper  from  the  Ural; 
gold  and  precious  stones  from  the  Altai  ranges. 

The  ivory  of  fossil  elephants  is  found  in  large  quantities  along  the  shores  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean  and  on  the  island  of  New  Siberia,  and  is  an  article  of  con- 
siderable commercial  importance. 

A  great  trade  route  extends  from  China  to  Russia,  through  Siberia,  by  which 
the  tea,  silk,  satin,  and  rhubarb  of  the  Celestials  are  exchanged  for  metals,  furs, 
cotton  goods,  and  cutlery  fiom  Russia.  Dromedaries  and  dogs  form  the  trains. 
Irkutsk,  Tomsk,  and  Omsk  are  on  the  route.  Tobolsk  is  the  point  to  which 
exiles  are  sent  to  be  distributed  over  the  country. 

Russian  Turkestan. —  The  wealth  of  the  nomad  tribes  of 

Turkestan,  living  principally  on  the  steppes,  consists  in  horses, 

camels,  cattle,  and  sheep.     In  the  rich  river  valleys  of  the 

south,  grains,  the  choicest  orchard  fruits,  melons,  flax,  cotton, 

and  silk  are  grown.     Much  of  the  land  has  to  be  irrigated  in 

order  to  produce  crops. 

The  women  weave  the  most  beautiful  carpets,  and  these,  with  cotton,  silk, 
hides,  and  fruits  are  exported  over  the  caravan  routes. 

Bokhara,  though  nominally  independent,  is  under  Eussian 
influence. 

The  city  of  Bokhara  is  famed  for  its  numerous  mosques.  "No  less  aston- 
ishing is  the  number  of  colleges,  schools,  graveyards,  and  saints  of  all  orders." 
The  suburbs  contain  beautiful  gardens  watered  from  the  streams.  Its  bazars 
and  great  caravansaries  are  crowded  with  goods  from  Russia  and  India. 

Trans  Caucasia  is  a  beautiful,  fertile  country.    The  noblest 

forests  of  oak  and  beech  clothe  the  mountains,  and  grapes,  figs, 

peaches,  and  apricots  are  among  the  fruits.    The  women  are 

famed  for  their  beauty. 

The  Georgians,  who  form  the  largest  portion  of  the  population,  are  passion- 
ately fond  of  music.  They  sing  and  play  at  home,  at  the  taverns,  in  the  market 
place,  and  at  feasts.  Their  work  in  shop  and  field  is  relieved  by  a  concert  of 
voices  whose  time  is  measured  by  the  varying  movements  required  by  their  labor. 

Turkey. —  Asiatic  Turkey  forms  an  important  part  of  the 
Turkish  or  Ottoman  Empire.  It  is  divided  into  provinces, 
among  which  are  Asia  Minor,  or  "Lesser  Asia,"  lying  between 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  Black  Sea 


117 


118 


ASIA— TTJRKET— ARABIA. 


EBEI  ilrfl  l^^l 

M 

■11 

MUEZZIN  CAillNG 
THCPEOPLE  TO  PRAYERS. 


Mr 


The  Turks  are  the  ruling  class, 
bat  there  are  many  Greeks,  Jews, 
and  people  of  other  races,  making 
a  mixed  population  and  a  jargon 
of  tongues. 

The  country  is  badly  governed, 
the  masses  of  the  people  are  igno- 
rant, and  little  encouragement  is 
given  to  industry.  The  splendid 
forests  and  vast  mineral  resources 
in  the  mountains  of  the  north  are  neglected. 

Agriculture  is  carried  on  with  the  rudest  tools. 
The  buffalo  is  often  used  to  draw  the  wooden  plow 
and  to  furnish  milk  in  place  of  the  cow,  which 
is  seldom  seen.  Asses  and  camels  are  tho  princi- 
pal beasts  of  burden.  Caravans  still  take  the 
place  of  railways,  and  in  the  cities  which  are  cen- 
ters of  the  caravan  trade,  one  sees  a  motley  crowd 
gathered  from  the  four  quarters  of  the  earth. 

The  exports  include  dried  figs  and  raisins  from  thousands 
of  orchanU  and  vineyards;  attar  of  roses  from  rose  gardens; 
silk,  wool,  cotton,  and  opium,  a  product  of  tho  opium  poppy; 
goats'  hair  from  the  famed  Angora  goat;  sponges  gathered  along 
the  coasts;  and  leeches  from  the  pools  and  streams. 

Cities.  —  Smyrna  has  a  fine  harbor  and  is  a  commercial 
city. — Beyrout  occupies  a  beautiful  situation  at  the  foot  of 
Mt.  Lebanon,  celebrated  for  its  cedars.     Regular  lines  of 
steamers  connect  it  with  Liverpool  and  Marseilles.— Damascus  claims  to  bo  the 
oldest  city  in  the  world.     Damascus  sword  blades  are  famed  for  their  quality. 
The  city  stands  on  a  fertile  plain  clothed  with  gardens  and  orchards.— Mecca 
is  in  a  desert  region.     It  is  noted  as  the  birthplace  of  Mohammed,  and  the 
city  swarms  -with  pilgrims.— Jerusalem,  the  city  of  sacred  memories,  contains 
but  20,000  people. 

Arabia  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  least  inviting  regions  of 
the  globe,  and  much  of  the  surface  has  never  been  trodden  by 
European  feet.  It  is  known  to  have  great  deserts  of  shifting 
sands  with  oases  here  and  there. 


ASIA— PEESIA— AFGHANISTAN— BEITISH  INDIA. 


119 


Arabia  is  inhabited  by  scattered  tribes,  some  of  whom  rove 
with  their  flocks  over  the  scanty  pastures,  while  others  have 
permanent  homes  in  the  fertile  tracts. 

There  are  no  forests,  but  130  varieties  of  the  date  palm  grow  in  the  oases, 
supplying  the  chief  food  of  the  inhabitants.  Coffee  is  indigenous,  and  plants 
producing  frankincense,  myrrh,  gum  arable,  balsam,  and  senna  have  supplied 
the  markets  of  the  world  for  ages.  Indigo,  maize,  wheat,  barley,  and  a  kind 
of  grain  called  durra,  are  grown.  The  vine  is  raised  for  its  fruit  alone,  as  the 
Mohammedans  drink  no  wine;  and  the  peach,  apricot,  and  almond  flourish. 

Locusts  abound,  and  they  are  regarded  as  excellent  food.  "The  red  locust, 
which  is,  I  believe,  the  female,  is  the  best  eating,  and  should  be  plain  boiled. 
In  taste,  it  resembles  green  wheat,  having  a  very  delitate  vegetable  flavor. 
Horses  thrive  on  them,  and  nearly  every  animal  in  the  desert  devours  them. 
Our  dogs  caught  and  ate  them  greedily.  A  camel  will  occasionally  munch 
them  in  with  its  pasture,  and  a  hyena  I  .shot  was  found  to  be  full  of  them. 
Locusts  should  be  gathered  in  the  morning  when  the  dew  is  on  their  wings." — 
Blunt. 

Horses,  mules,  the  ass,  and  the  camel  are  the  domestic  ani- 
mals. The  Arabian  claims  that  his  beautiful  steed  has  descended 
from  horses  kept  in  the  stables  of  Solomon. 

Cities. — Aden  Js  a  coaling  station  for  British  steamers  engaged  in  the  East 
India  trade.  It  stands  on  a  bare  rock,  and  is  one  of  the  most  unhealthy  places 
on  the  globe. — Muscat  is  a  commercial  town. 

Persia. —  The  ruler  of  Persia  is  called  by  his  people  a  "Shah- 
in-Shah,"  or  "King  of  Kings."  His  government  is  very  des- 
potic. 

The  settled  inhabitants  are  mostly  descendants  of  the  ancient  Persians,  who 
were  among  the  earliest  civilized  people.  The  nomads,  or  wanderers,  fori»  the 
majority,  and  include  four  different  riices.  The  Persians  have  a  ready  wit  and 
pleasant  manner,  and,  whether  they  belong  to  city  or  country,  are  said  to  be 
polite  and  courteous. 

Little  attention  has  been  paid  to  education,  but  some  years 
ago  the  shah  visited  European  countries,  and  he  has  since  at- 
tempted to  establish  a  system  of  schools  and  other  public  im- 
provements. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  kingdom  is  a  saline,  sandy  waste  with  few  inhab- 
itants. Some  of  the  country  in  the  we.st  and  near  the  Caspian  is  very  fertile. 
The  southern  slopes  of  the  Elburz  Mountains  are  "as  beautiful  as  wood,  water, 
and  a  hot  climate  can  make  them." 

Irrigation  is  necessary  in  most  places,  and  wherever  water  can  be  brought, 
plants  thrive  in  the  most  wonderful  manner.  The  fig  grows  wild.  The  mul- 
berry and  olive  plantations,  the  vineyards,  the  peach,  cherry,  pear,  and  apple 
orchards,  and  the  rose  gardens  are  seen  as  one  passes  through  the  country. 
Wheat  of  fine  quality  is  raised  in  tlie  highlands;  rice  and  maize  in  the  valleys. 
The  melons  of  Persia  are  celebrated  for  their  flavor.  Horses,  camels,  sheep,  and 
goats  are  reared  on  highland  slopes  and  in  mountain  valleys. 

The  manufactures  are  silks,  carpets,  brocades,  cutlery,  leather, 

and  attar  of  roses.     Silk  is  the  most  important  of  the  exports. 

The  internal  trade  is  carried  on  by  caravans. 

Teheran  stands  at  the  base  of  the  mountains,  which  here  rise  20,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall,  and  many  of  the  houses 
are  low  and  built  of  the  same  material,  but  they  are  often  furnished  with  beau- 
tiful carpets.  The  palace  of  the  shah  is  vast  and  elegant,  and  there  are  mosques 
and  bazars  that  look  well. 

Afghanistan. — "The  land  of  the  Afghans"  is  governed  by 
a  despotic  ruler  called  the  Ameer.  About  one-half  of  the  in- 
habitants are  Afghans,  who  are  warlike  in  disposition.  Per- 
sians, Arabs,  Jews,  and  other  races  make  up  the  other  half. 
The  Persian  language  is  generally  spoken,  and  most  of  the  peo- 
ple are  of  the  Moslem  faith.  Many  are  nomads  wandering  over 
the  plains,  but  others  cultivate  the  soil  in  a  rude  way. 

The  west  is  a  desert  plain.  The  high  mountain  regions  of  the  north  are 
cold  and  barren,  but  the  products  of  the  valleys  are  similar  to  those  of  Persia. 

Cities. —  Cabul  is  6,400  feet  above  the  sea.  The  valleys  about  it  contain 
fine  orchards. — Candahar  is  a  fortified  city,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  Its  beautiful  gardens  and  orchards  are  irrigated  by  canals. 
— Herat  is  on  the  great  caravan  route  from  Western  Asia  to  India. 

It  will  be  seen  that  Afghanistan  lies  between  the  Russian  dominions  and 
British  India.  These  great  powers  are  jealous  of  each  other's  political  influence, 
and  one  country  will  not  allow  the  other  to  gain  undue  control  over  the  ameer, 


much  less  to  hold  the  only  mountain  passes  through  which  lead  the  great  routes 
of  trade  and  over  which  armies  can  pass.  To  hold  Afghanistan  is  to  hold  the 
key  to  India. 

Beloochistan.— "The  land  of  the  Beloochees"  is  ruled,  nom- 
inally, by  a  khan,  who  is  under  British  influence,  but  there  are 
many  roving  tribes,  governed  by  their  own  chiefs,  that  are  dis- 
posed to  live  by  plunder. 

The  productions  are  similar  to  those  of  Afghanistan.  The  exports  are  wool, 
dried  fruits,  and  vegetable  oil.  Trade  goes  over  the  caravan  route  which  leads 
through  Bolan  Pass,  a  narrow  defile  60  miles  in  length,  through  the  mountains 
on  the  east. 

British  India. — British  India  includes  the  peninsula  of 
Hindustan,  a  part  of  Farther  India,  and  the  island  of  Ceylon, 
with  a  total  area  of  1,574,000  square  miles. 

Government. — This  region  was  for  a  long  time  under  the 

control  of  the  "East  India  Company,"  but  after  the  mutiny  of 

the  native  army,  in  1857,  it  passed  to  the  Crown,  and  in  1877 

was  constituted  an  empire, — the  queen  of  England  assuming 

the  title  of  Empress  of  India. 

The  sovereign  is  represented  by  a  viceroy  and  governor  general,  who  lives 
at  Calcutta,  and  is  aided  by  governors  of  provinces.  Legislative  councils  and 
courts  are  also  established,  and  armies  of  British  and  native  troops  are  main- 
tained. 

Population. — The  total  British-born  population  is  about 

153,000  and  the  native  population  nearly  257,000,000,  or  five 

times  that  of  the  United  States.      The  inhabitants,  scattered 

over  300  provinces  and  averaging  184  persons  to  the  square 

mile,  are  in  every  stage  of  civilization,  from  the  most  degraded 

savages  to  the  learned  Hindu  or  cultivated  Englishman. 

Castes. — The  Brahmins  are  divided  into  castes.  The  divisions,  which  orig- 
inally depended  on  color,  now  mean  something  very  different.  The  four  oi  iginal 
castes  include:  1,  Priests;  2,  warriors;  3,  citizens,  traders,  agriculturists;  4,  me- 
nials. These  four  classes  are  now  divided  into  many  others.  Those  belonging 
to  one  class  do  not  associate  with  people  belonging  to  another.  The  Moham- 
medans recognize  no  castes. 

Education. — There  are  109,000  common  and  26,000  private 
schools,  besides  a  large  number  of  colleges,  universities,  and 
schools  for  special  instruction.  The  government  pays  annually, 
in  one  way  or  another,  about  $12,000,000  for  public  education, 
and  the  people  pay  as  much  more.  Of  the  total  population 
in  1885,  over  200,000,000  were  unable  to  read  or  write. 

Agriculture. — Nearly  70,000,000  people  are  engaged  in  agri- 
culture. In  the  temperate  north,  European  grains,  fruits,  and 
vegetables  are  raised.  In  the  south,  the  staples  of  food  and 
commerce  are  rice,  cotton,  indigo,  jute,  oil  seeds,  opium,  and 
betel  nuts.  The  coffee  plant,  tea,  cinchona,  and  the  eucalyptus 
from  Australia,  have  been  introduced  and  cultivated  with  suc- 
cess. To  irrigate  the  land  16,150  miles  of  canal  have  been  cut, 
watering  7,000,000  acres. 

Forests. — The  forests  yield  many  varieties  of  timber,  from  the  pine,  cedar, 
and  the  oak  of  the  north  to  the  ebony,  the  teak,  and  the  graceful  and  most  use- 
ful bamboo  of  the  south.  They  swarm  with  beasts  and  reptiles,  and  20,000 
men  and  50,000  head  of  cattle  are  annually  destroyed  by  wild  beasts  and  venom- 
ous snakes. 

The  natives  are  very  skillfdl.  Old  looms  art  still  seen,  and  the  most  deli- 
cate muslins  and  the  finest  shawls  are  woven  by  hand;  but  some  of  the  old 
industries  are  dying  out.  Thousands  are  now  employed  in  the  jute,  cotton,  and 
sugar  manufactories. 

Commerce. — To  carry  on  the  internal  commerce  of  the 
country  the  government  has  constructed  20,000  miles  of  mac- 
adamized road,  over  16,000  miles  of  railway,  and  15,000  miles  of 
canal.  The  rivers  afford  10,000  miles  of  navigable  water.  The 
foreign  commerce  employs  5,309  ships,  of  which  over  1,000  are 
steamers  which  pass  the  Suez  Canal. 


120 


ASIA— FAETHER  INDIA— THE  CHINESE  EMPIEE. 


Though  most  of  the  people 
aie  engaged  in  agriculture,  there 
are  nearly  a  hall'  million  rural  vil- 
lages, anil  sixty  cities  with  a  pop- 
ulation ranging  from  50,000  to 
870,000each.  Someofthevillages 
and  cities  are  composed  of  mud 
houses  thatched  with  straw; 
others  have  fine  dwellings,  tem- 
ples, and  other  edifices. 

Cities. — Calcutta  is  on  the 
Hoogly,  100  miles  from  the  sea. 
It  is  strongly  fortified  and  is  a 
great  commercial  city.  It  has 
many  mos(iues,  temples,  and  pa- 
godas. The  European  part  of  th(> 
town  contaius  palatial  residences 
and  public  buildiiij.'s.  —  Bombay 
has  an  extensive  trade  by  way  of 
the  Suez  Csinal. 

Farther  India,  or  the 
"Golden  Peninsula,"  as  it  has  been  called,  is  one 
of  the  least  known  regions  of  Asia.  It  includes 
Burmah,  Slam,  Anam,  and  several  smaller  king- 
doms to  the  south,  all  governed  by  despotic  rulers, 
some  of  whom  have  power  over  the  property,  and 
even  the  lives,  of  their  subjects. 

The  inhabitants  in  the  north  belong  to  the  Mon- 
golian, and  in  the  south  to  the  Malay  race.  This 
la  one  of  the  most  densely  populated  portions  of  the 
globe.  Many  of  the  people  are  savages,  but  a  large  portion 
cultivate  the  soil  and  are  skillful  workmen  in  their  way.  The 
houses  of  the  common  people  are  made  of  the  bamboo  and 
thatched  with  palm  leaves. 

The  Burmese  profess  the  Buddhist  religion,  and  great  expense  is  lavished 
on  the  shrines  and  temples.  The  white  elephant  is  regarded  as  a  sacred  beast. 
A  national  system  of  education  has  been  established  and  all  male  youth  are 
obliged  to  be  taught  by  the  priests. 

Farther  India  is  without  European  roads,  and  travelers  follow  the  navigable 
rivers.     The  elephant  is  used  as  a  beast  of  burden. 

The  hot,  moist  climate  of  the  peninsula  is  favorable  to  vegetable  growth 
and  the  primeval  forests  whioh  cover  a  large  part  of  the  surface  almost  equal 
those  of  the  Amazon  in  luxuriance. 

Rice  is  the  great  8tai)le,  and,  with  fish,  forms  the  chief  food  of 
the  people.  The  valleys  of  the  rivers  are  covered  with  rice 
fields.  The  other  cultivated  plants  are  cotton,  tobacco,  indigo, 
cane,  cloves,  ginger,  coffee,  cinuamon,  pepper,  and  tropical 
fruit  of  many  varieties. 


Bangkok  is  a  commercial  city.  The  best  dwellings  are  raised  on  piles,  but 
many  of  the  inhabitants  live  in  floating  houses.  The  king's  palace  is  adorned 
with  gold  and  precious  stones. 

The  Chinese  Empire  ranks  third  among  the  great  coun- 
tries of  the  world.  The  emperor  possesses  unlimited  authority, 
and  is  regarded  as  the  head  of  the  state,  of  religion,  and  of  the 
family. 

Inhabitants. — The  population  is  estimated  at  404,000,000, 
of  which  about  383,000,000  live  in  China  alone.  China  is  one 
of  the  most  densely  peopled  countries  of  the  world.  Nearly  all 
the  inhabitants  belong  to  the  Mongolian  race. 

Most  of  the  people  have  adopted  the  Buddhist  faith,  which  is  the  state  re- 
ligion; but  the  learned  classes  study  and  follow  the  moral  precepts  of  the  phi- 
losophers CJonfncius  and  Laotse.  The  hill  tribes  are  nature  worshipers.  In  the 
west  and  northwest  provinces  are  many  followers  of  Mohammed. 

Education. —  In  China  proper,  education  has  received  such  wide  attention 
that  few  adults  can  be  found  who  are  unable  to  read  and  write.  The  lettered 
classes  alone  are  familiar  with  literature,  and  they  often  devote  their  lives  to 


ASIA— THE  CHINESE  EMPIEE— BMPIEE  OF  JAPAN. 


121 


ita  stndy.  Yearly  examinations  for  literary  degrees  are  held  at  the  capitals  of 
the  provinces.     Candidates  for  the  highest  honors  are  examined  at  Pekin. 

Great  improvements  have  recently  heen  made  in  the  system  of  education. 
Scientific  works  have  been  translated  for  the  use  of  all  classes,  and  a  college  for 
the  study  of  European  languages,  chemistry,  natural  history,  physiology,  and 
other  sciences  has  been  established,  and  successful  students  are  appointed  to 
high  offices  under  the  government. 

In  those  provinces  of  the  empire  where  the  population  is  scattered,  or  no- 
madic, there  is  little  education,  and,  as  in  India,  every  grade  of  civilization 
may  be  found. 

The  Chief  Wealth. — In  Turkestan,  Mongolia,  and  Thibet 
the  chief  wealth  consists  in  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  goats. 
Many  of  the  inhabitants  are  nomads.  The  Thibetans  have  do- 
mesticated the  yak,  the  horse,  and  the  sheep,  the  latter  carry- 
ing a  burden  of  twenty  to  thirty  pounds  over  the  highest 
passes.  The  Cashmere  goat,  whose  soft  down,  growing  under 
the  outer  covering,  makes  the  most  beautiful  shawls,  is  found 
in  Thibet. 

In  Manchooria  rhubarb  and  ginseng  are  two  plants  of  great  commercial 
value.  The  former  grows  from  8  to  10  feet  high,  and  thrives  at  an  altitude  of 
10,000  feet.  Corea  produces  the  plants  of  the  Warm  Temperate  Zone  in  great 
abundance. 

China  proper  has  a  rich  vegetation.  There  are  some  forests, 
but  in  many  districts  little  is  seen  except  carefully  cultivated 
patches  of  vegetables,  fruit  trees,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  rice,  pop- 


CHINESE  MANDARIN,   HIS  WIFE,  CHILD,  AND  SERVANT. 

pies,  the  bamboo,  mulberry  trees,  and  the  tea  plant.      The 
ground  is  so  occupied  that  there  is  little  room  for  wild  plants. 

Three  plants  are  of  great  importance.  They  are,  rice,  the  staple  food  of 
hundreds  of  millions;  the  bamboo,  yielding  material  for  the  construction  of 
houses  and  furniture;  and  tea,  the  national  beverage  and  the  great  article  of 
export. 

Raw  silk  is  another  source  of  national  wealth.  For  centuries  silk  culture 
has  heen  a  great  industry.  Nearly  all  the  manufacturing  is  performed  by  hand, 
and  the  work  is  done  with  great  skill.  The  Chinese  excel  in  the  manufacture 
of  silk,  chinaware,  nankeens,  embroidery,  and  carved  ivory. 

Commerce. —  The  country  has  only  two  railways,  but  there 
are  20,000  imperial  roads,  many  canals,  several  large  navigable 
rivers,  and  caravan  routes  leading  to  distant  parts  of  the  em- 
pire. Tea,  silks,  and  manufactured  goods  are  the  chief  exports. 
Opium,  steel,  glass,  woolens,  and  cottons  are  the  leading  imports. 

Minerals. — The  high  mountainous  districts  in  the  western 
part  of  the  empire  have  great  mineral  wealth,  including  iron, 
the  precious  metals,  salt,  coal,  and  precious  stones. 

The  coal  fields  of  China  are  so  vast  that  they  promise,  some  day,  to  be,  next 
to  agriculture,  its  greatest  source  of  wealth.  In  one  province  alone  the  coal 
fields  cover  an  area  larger  than  Minnesota  by  20,000  square  miles.  Another 
field,  containing  anthracite  equal  in  quality  to  that  of  Pennsylvania,  has  an 
area  of  16,000  square  miles. 


China  has  over  fifty  cities  each  with  a  population  of  100,000 
and  upwards.  Canton  has  1,600,000,  Pekin  1,000,000,  and 
Tientsin  950,000  inhabitants.  The  towns  are  nearly  alike  in 
style  of  buildings.  All  contain  temples,  towers,  narrow  streets, 
and  rickety  houses  in  large  numbers. 

The  ports  of  China  were  formerly  closed  to  the  commerce  of  the  world;  but 
22  cities,  situated  in  ten  different  provinces  and  known  as  "Treaty  Ports,"  are 
now  open  to  the  ships  of  all  nations.  China  has  steam  merchant  vessels  that 
run  to  San  Francisco  and  other  American  seaports,  and  a  steam  navy  to  protect 
her  coasts  and  maintain  her  rights  on  the  ocean. 

Cities. —  Pekin  is  surrounded  by  a  high,  thick  wall.  It  consists  of  an  outer 
or  a  Chinese  quarter,  and  an  inner  quarter,  in  which  is  the  imperial  palace  and 
the  "Temple  of  Heaven,"  which  the  emperor  visits  once  a  year.  With  its 
shrines,  gardens,  courts,  and  moats,  the  temple  measures  two  miles  around. 
Besides  these,  the  inner  quarter  contains  government  ofiices  and  pleasure 
grounds.  Business  men  live  in  the  outer  city.  Canton,  Shanghai,  Ningpo, 
and  Amoy  are  the  chief  ports  open  to  foreign  commerce. 

Empire  of  Japan. — The  Empire  of  Japan,  or  "Land 
of  the  Eising  Sun,"  consists  of  3,850  islets  and  the  four  large 
islands  of  Yes-so,  Hondo,  Shi-ko-ku,  and  Kiu-shiu.  The  total 
area  of  the  emjiire  is  about  10,000  square  miles  less  than  that 
of  California,  and  its  population  is  nearly  38,000,000.  The  ruler 
is  styled  "The  Mikado."  He  is  a  hereditary  monarch,  the  121st 
iu  his  line,  which  began  660  B.  C. 

People.^ — Though  the  people  belong  to  the  Mongolian  race 

they  differ  much  in  language  and  customs  from  their  Chinese 

neighbors.     No  other  country  in  Asia  is  making  such  rapid 

progress  in  what  is  called  western  civilization. 

Its  ports,  once  closed,  are  now  open  to  the  commerce  of  all  nations;  for- 
eigners, once  excluded,  are  now  welcome,  and  the  educated  are  desired  among 
them.  A  thorough  system  of  public  schools  has  been  provided;  railways  have 
been  built,  postal  and  telegraph  lines  have  been  established,  and  all  classes  of 
men  are  equal  before  the  law.  Even  the  Buddhist  and  other  religions  are  losing 
their  hold  on  the  intelligent  classes,  and  modern  ideas  are  taking  their  place. 

Agriculture. — The  soil  is  not  very  fertile,  and  much  of  the 
land  is  still  clothed  with  forests;  but  agriculture  is  carried  on 
with  the  greatest  skill,  and  the  finest  of  crops  are  raised.  Labor 
is  abundant,  and  their  "spade  husbandry  turns  the  country  into 
a  beautifully  kept  garden  in  which  one  might  hunt  vainly  for  a 
weed."  They  manure  heavily,  understand  the  rotation  of  crops, 
and  turn  everything  to  account. 

Eice,  with  wheat,  millet,  vegetables,  and  fish,  forms  the  staple  food.  The 
mulberry  and  tea  plantations  cover  large  tracts  in  the  south.  The  camphor 
tree  is  the  most  remarkable  growth  of  the  forest,  its  trunk  reaching  a  circum- 
ference of  twenty  feet.  The  bamboo  grows  very  rapidly  in  thickets,  and  is  put 
to  almost  endless  uses. 

Frames  of  houses,  screens,  paper,  pipes,  mats,  saUs  of  junks,  and  walking 
sticks  are  among  the  articles  made  of  the  bamboo. 

The  houses  of  all  classes  are  mostly  one  story,  with  projecting  roofs  and  very 
large  rooms.     Mats  and  quilting  take  the  place  of  chairs,  tables,  and  bedsteads. 

The  ox,  horse,  dog,  cat,  and  poultry  are  kept,  but  domestic  animals  are  very 
scarce.  The  silk-worm  is  by  far  the  most  valuable  animal,  as  it  is  a  great 
source  of  wealth. 

Manufactures. — The  Japanese  are  renowned  for  their  man- 
ufacture of  bronze,  lacquer,  and  paper  wares.  Their  paintings 
on  paper  and  silk,  and  their  profusely  illustrated  books,  are  very 
interesting. 

Cities. — Tokio,  the  capital,  formerly  called  Yeddo,  has  nearly  1,000,000 
inhabitants. — Yokohama,  the  port  of  Tokio,  has  a  grand  harbor.  Its  chief 
exports  are  tea  and  silks;  its  imports,  woolens  and  cottons.  It  is  a  town  of 
recent  growth. 

In  all  cities  a  quarter  is  set  off  for  sports,  and  one  sees  acrobats,  strolling 
players,  j  ugglers,  and  clowns  performing  in  the  streets.  There  are  many  thea- 
ters, and  whole  families  squat  on  the  floor  to  see  the  plays.  Kite  flying  and 
fireworks  are  lavorite  amusements.  The  Japanese  bed  consists  of  a  capacious 
wadded  garment  with  sleeves  into  which  the  sleeper  creeps  and  then  draws  a 
coverlet  over  him.  The  pillow  consists  of  a  wooden  box  eight  inches  long  on 
which  is  laid  a  paper  cushion,  renewed  every  night. 


AFRICA, 


MAP  STUDIES. 

REVIEW   EXERCISES. 


Physical  Features. — Locate  and  describe  the  coast  waters,  islands,  mountains,  deserts,  lakes,  and  great  rivers. 

Climate. —  In  what  zones  does  the  continent  lie?    State  how  the  climate  is  affected  by  mountains,  ocean  currents, 
prevailing  winds,  and  rainfall. 

Plant  Zones. — In  what  plant  zones 
is  Africa  situated  ? 

General  Questions. — How  many 
countries  are  represented  on  the  map? 
Which  is  the  largest?  What  states  lie 
on  the  Mediterranean?  On  the  Red 
Sea?  On  the  Indian  Ocean?  On  the 
Atlantic  ?  Wliat  countries  have  no  sea 
coast?  What  states  are  situated  on  the 
Nile?  On  the  Congo?  On  the  Niger? 
On  the  Zambesi 

EXERCISES.  -Locate  and 
describe  the  principal  coun- 
tries. 

Sketch  maps  of  the  impor- 
tant countries.  Locate  chief 
cities. 

DESCRIPTION. 

The  great  travelers, 
Livingstone,  Barth,  Bur- 
ton, Speke,  Grant,  Baker, 
Cameron,  Stanley,  and 
others  have  done  much  to 
extend  our  knowledge  of 
Africa,  but  we  still  know  less  of 
it  than  of  any  other  continent. 

Inhabitants. — The  negroes  occupy  almost  the  entire  conti- 
nent south  of  the  Great  Desert.  There  are  many  tribes,  some 
peaceful,  cultivating  the  soil  in  a  rude  way,  raising  cattle,  man- 
ufacturing a  few  articles  with  considerable  skill,  and  having 
some  trade.  Other  tribes  are  savage,  living  by  hunting,  or  on 
such  roots  or  fruits  as  grow  without  cultivation,  and  often  wag- 
ing cruel  wars  with  weaker  tribes  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
slaves  or  other  plunder. 

The  people  of  Northern  Africa,  including  the  Sahara,  Abys- 
sinia, Egypt,  and  the  Barbary  States,  belong  mainly  to  the 
Caucasian  race.  The  Berbers,  or  natives  of  the  country,  were 
conquered  by  the  Arabs  several  centuries  ago,  but  they  are  still 
numerous,  particularly  in  the  desert,  where  they  dwell  in  the 
oases,  depending  on  the  date  palm,  and  some  other  plants. 
The  Arabs  possess  the  Nile  Valley  and  most  of  the  countries 
along  the  northern  coast. 

The  Arabs  of  the  desert  are  nomadic,  wandering  from  one  oasis  to  another 
with  their  sheep,  goats,  camels,  and  horses.  A  few  Copts,  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  are  still  found  along  the  Nile. 

Africa  has  been  called  the  "Dark  Continent."  Millions  of  its  people  dwell 
in  huts  built  of  mud  or  sticks.  They  are  vrithout  schools,  and  have  no  knowl- 
edge of  the  outside  world.  There  are  but  few  large  towns,  and  none  to  com- 
pare with  the  splendid  cities  of  other  continents. 

Commerce. — The  vast  body  of  the  continent  is  without  rail- 
ways, or  even  highways,  and  its  internal  commerce  is  chiefly 
carried  on  over  caravan  routes  stretching  across  vast  deserts  and 
plains.  No  other  continent  has  so  little  trade  with  the  outside 
world.  European  trading  settlements  have  been  established 
here  and  there  along  the  coast,  but  their  influence  is  still  little 
felt  in  the  interior. 


Egypt. —  Egypt  was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  most  renowned  of 
the  ancient  nations,  whose  glory  is  shown  by  the  remains  of  mag- 
nificent temples,  pyramids,  statues,  obelisks,  and  sepulchers. 

It  is  nominally  a  state  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  paying  a 
yearly  tribujie  to  the  sultan,  but  is  really  nearly  independent 
under  the  rule  of  a  hereditary  viceroy,  called  the  Khedive.  It 
is  the  most  powerful  and  progressive  state  in  Africa,  the  influ- 
ence of  the  khedive  being  felt  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
Equator. 

More  than  1,000  miles  of  railway  have  been  built;  elementary  and  higher 
schools,  in  which  foreign  languages  are  taught,  have  been  established  and  are 
supported  by  the  government;  improved  tools  and  methods  of  tillage  are  being 
introduced;  thousands  of  trees  have  been  planted,  and,  owing  to  their  influence, 
rain  begins  to  fall  in  some  places. 

White  cotton  fields,  rice  fields,  green  seas  of  com,  pasture  lands  with  cattle, 
asses,  sheep,  and  goats  are  seen  along  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Lower  Nile. 

The  chief  manufactures  are  pottery,  carpets,  firearms,  and 
palm  matting. 

The  Nile,  the  Suez  Canal,  the  caravan  routes,  and  the  rail- 
roads are  arteries  of  trade. 

In  the  streets  of  the  cities  one  sees  Arabs,  Copts,  Turks,  Greeks,  Syrians, 
Italians,  French,  English,  Germans,  negroes,  and  Jews.  Strange  costumes  are 
worn,  and  there  is  a  baltel  of  tongues.  The  manners,  customs,  and  religions 
of  all  nations  are  brought  together. 

Cities. — Cairo,  a  sea  of  houses  over  which  rises  the  tapering  minarets  and 
cupolas  of  400  mosques,  the  Arabs  call  the  "Queen  of  the  Nile  Valley."  The 
houses  are  all  raised  above  the  level  of  the  ground.  They  are  from  one  to  three 
stories  high,  with  flat  terraces  instead  of  sloping  roofs,  and  without  gables  or 
window  frames.  The  whole  city  with  its  350,000  inhabitants  receives  its  water 
from  the  Nile.  Water  carriers  are  very  numerous  and  take  their  supplies  in 
goat  skins,  borne  on  their  own  shoulders  or  on  backs  of  donkeys. 

Alexandria  is  the  chief  seaport.-  Khartoum  is  a  great  center  of  the  caravan 
trade  with  Central  Africa.  Its  chief  imports  are  cotton  goods  from  England. 
The  exports  are  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  gums,  and  wax. 


122 


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The  two  statues,  the  Co- 
lossi of  Memnon,  stuid 
,  amidst  the  ruins  of  eight- 
0* 'ecu  others  on  the  west  hank 
of  the  Nile.     The  name 
"Memnon "  was associ.it< d 
with  thera  B.C.  1400.    The 
most  northern  gave  out 
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rising  ,sun  fell  upon  it,  s\ii)- 
jKwed  to  be  salutations  of  Memnon  to  his  motli- 

„er,  Aurora.     These  strange  sounds  were  heird 

coming  from  the  pedesttil  of  the  statue  as  late 
as  1821. — Give  an  account  of  the  Pyramids  and  the  Sphinx.   Whatcloesthe  plow-"'-^. 
ing  scene  show  as  to  the  state  of  agriculture?    Is  elephant  hunting  a  common  ^-^ff 

sport  la  Central  Africa?    What  disguise  has,  the  gnu  hunter  chosen  ? 

124 


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AFRICA— ABYSSi:^! A— THE  SAHAEA— MADAGASCAR. 


125 


Abyssinia. — Abyssinia  consists  of  several  petty  states  ruled 
by  a  king.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Ethiopians.  Their  prevailing  color,  in  the  north,  is 
almost  white;  in  the  center,  pure  brown;  in  the  south,  nearly 
black.  The  people  of  the  towns  are  shrewd  traders.  The  wealthy 
classes  live  in  idleness  and  their  dwellings  are  miserable  huts 
reeking  with  filth. 

Cattle  breeding  is  a  favorite  industry,  to  which  the  pasturage  of  the  hilly- 
districts  and  the  lowlands  of  the  south  is  well  suited. 

Though  there  are  three  belts  of  climate  and  vegetation,  depending  on 
differences  in  elevation,  and  the  plants  of  the  Torrid,  the  Wann  Temperate, 
and  the  Temperate  Zones  may  be  raised,  tillage  is  limited  to  the  growing  of 
cereals  and  cotton,  and  is  carried  on  in  the  rudest  way. 

The  Barbary  States. — The  Barbary  States  are — Tripoli, 
a  province  of  Turkey;  Tunis,  virtually  governed  by  France; 
Algeria,  a  province  of  France;  and  Morocco,  an  independent 
Mohammedan  state,  governed  by  a  sultan. 

Grain  and  olives  are  cultivated  in  the  north;  sheep  and 

goats  are  reared  in  the  mountain  districts;  and  in  the  south  is 

Beled-el-Jerid,  the  "Land  of  Dates."    The  chief  manufactures 

are  morocco,  olive  oil,  indigo,  and  salt.     These,  with  ostrich 

feathers,  dates,  wool,  gum,  and  grain  are  the  leading  exports. 

Since  the  French  took  possession  of  their  provinces  they  have  drained  large 
marshes  and  lakes  and  dug  artesian  wells  on  the  borders  of  the  deserts,  making 
the  climate  more  healthful  and  the  wastes  productive. 

The  Sahara. — Some  of  the  oases,  especially  in  the  east, 

are  fertile,  and  support  a  settled  population,  who  till  the  soil, 

raising  grains  and  fruits.     In  other  parts,  where  the  herbage 

is  dry  and  stunted,  there  are  nomads  with  their  herds. 

The  desert  is  crossed  by  caravans,  sometimes  numbering  thousands  of  camels. 
The  oases  are  the  resting  places.  The  distance  between  them  requires  a  journey 
of  eiglit  or  ten  days,  and  from  two  to  three  months  are  usually  spent  in  going 
from  Central  Africa  to  the  Barbary  States. 

Soudan. — Soudan  is  the  general  name  for  a  broad  belt  of 
country,  with  no  very  definite  northern  or  southern  boundary, 
extending  across  the  continent  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  Abys- 
sinia. 

"It  is  the  true  home  of  the  negro  races,  and  consists  of  many  kingdoms,  or 
states,  inhabited  by  different  tribes,  most  of  them  governed  by  native  kings." 

As  a  whole,  the  region  is  well  watered,  diversified,  very  fertile,  and  thickly 
peopled.  Some  of  the  countries,  especially  in  Central  Soudan,  have  regular 
governments,  courts,  and  a  military  system.  The  people  till  the  soil  and  man- 
ufacture many  varieties  of  cloth,  woven  in  hand  looms.  Their  craftsmen  work 
in  iron,  brass,  and  copper.  Other  tribes  are.  less  civilized,  and  some  are  still 
in  a  barbarous  state. 

There  are  many  towns,  some  of  which  have  50,000  inhabit- 
ants. Most  of  the  dwellings  are  round  mud  huts  with  conical 
roofs,  but  square  clay  houses  with  thatched  roofs,  and  cheaper 
huts  of  matting  are  occasionally  seen.  The  chief  towns  are  cen- 
ters of  the  caravan  trade.  Steamers  ply  on  the  Lower  Niger 
and  have  drawn  much  of  the  trade  that  formerly  took  the 
routes  of  the  desert. 

The  chief  exports  of  Soudan  are  palm  oil,  shea  butter,  ivory, 

gold,  ostrich  feathers,  and  gum  arable.     European  goods  are 

returned  in  exchange. 

Slavery  exists  in  all  the  countries.  The  Mohammedan  religion  prevails  in 
the  most  civilized  sections,  and  mosques  are  seen  in  many  of  the  towns,  especially 
in  the  north.  Wine,  beer,  and  other  spirits  are  prohibited  by  the  Koran.  Mo- 
hammedan schools  have  been  established.  Paganism  is  the  religion  of  the 
savage  tribes. 

Western  Africa. — Though  the  coast  belt  is  intensely  hot, 
and  the  climate,  especially  in  the  equatorial  regions,  very  un- 
healthy, the  French,  English,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  have 
trading  settlements  along  the  coast  from  Cape  Verde  to  Orange 
Elver.     The  inhabitants  are  principally  negroes,  who  live  in 


mud  huts,  and  most  of  their  wealth  consists  in  cattle,  sheep,  and 
poultry.  Some  raise  millet,  sugar-cane,  and  yams,  and  have 
learned  weaving  and  other  simple  arts. 

They  bring  their  palm  oil,  gums,  spices,  peanuts,  ivory,  gold  dust,  and 
ostrich  feathers  to  the  Enrojjeans  to  exchange  for  cotton  goods,  beads,  guns, 
knives,  and  liquors. 

Guinea. —  Guinea  is  a  name  applied  to  a  large  part  of  the  coast.  Siena 
Leone  was  purchased  by  Great  Britain  in  1787  as  a  home  for  negroes  taken  from 
slave  ships.  The  republic  of  Liberia  was  founded  as  a  home  for  slaves  liberated 
in  the  United  States.  Senegambia  comprises  many  small  states  ruled  by  native 
chiefs.     It  takes  its  name  from  its  chief  rivers,  Senegal  and  Gambia. 

Eastern  Africa. — This  section  includes  the  countries  along 
the  coast  from  the  Gulf  of  Aden  to  Zulu  Land. 

Somauli  Land  is  in  possession  of  the  Arabs,  who  lead  a  pastoral  life.  The 
country  is  rich  in  coffee  and  fragrant  gums.  Zanguebar,  "the  land  of  the  blacks, ' ' 
is  ruled  by  an  Arab  sultan,  who  lives  on  the  island  of  Zanzibar.  Ivory,  gum 
copal,  and  cloves  are  among  the  exports. 

The  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  Arabs  and  Hindus.  Mozambique  is  the  seat 
of  the  Portuguese  power.  Gold  dust,  honey,  and  tortoise  shells  are  among  the 
exports. 

South  African  Colonies  and  States, —  Cape  Colony,  Natal, 
and  Griqualand  are  provinces  of  Great  Britain.  Zulu  Land  and 
Kaffraria  are  native  states  governed  by  chiefs,  but  subject  to 
Great  Britain.  The  Orange  Free  State,  and  the  South  African 
Republic  are  republics  inhabited  by  Dutch  farmers  called 
Boers. 


VILLAGE  IN  CENTRAL  SOUTHER.N   AFBICA. 


About  one-third  of  the  population  of  the  English  provinces  consists  of 
Europeans.  The  natives  are  Kaffirs  and  Hottentots,  the  former  a  well-formed, 
manly  race,  whose  wealth  is  in  cattle.  Sheep  and  cattle  raising  are  great  in- 
dustries in  all  this  section.  Ostrich  farming — raising  ostriches  for  their  feath- 
ers — is  receiving  much  attention. 

The  diamond  mines  of  Griqualand  are  very  productive.  The  Dutch  repub- 
lics are  fine  agricultural  regions,  and  are  rich  in  minerals.  Wool,  hides,  tallow, 
diamonds,  copper,  and  feathers  are  important  exports. 

The  Congo  Free  State  is  a  vast  region,  the  scientific  ex- 
ploration of  which  was  begun  by  the  International  African 
Association  in  1877.  The  work  was  intrusted  to  an  executive 
committee,  whose  chairman  is  the  king  of  Belgium,  and  went 
forward  under  the  direction  of  the  great  African  explorer, 
Henry  M.  Stanley.  Seventy-nine  treaties  were  made  with  na- 
tive chiefs,  twenty-two  settlements  were  established,  and  the 
work  was  vigorously  pushed  along  the  Congo  and  its  tributaries. 

Under  a  treaty  of  the  Western  Powers,  convened  in  Berlin  in  1884,  the 
whole  Congo  region  is  open  to  the  trade  of  all  nations. 

The  country  is  thickly  peopled  by  dark  tribes,  some  of  them  tilling  the 
soil,  others  rude  savages.  There  are  vast  regions  of  Africa  stiU  unexplored  and 
without  a  name. 

Madagascar  is  inhabited  by  Malays.  The  government  is  a 
monarchy.  The  products  are  cotton,  rice,  sugar-cane,  cocoanuts, 
and  tropical  fruits. 

The  Cape  Verde,  Canary,  Madeira,  and  Azores  are  groups  of 
volcanic  islands  with  tropical  vegetation.  Cotton,  rice,  coffee, 
sugar-cane,  oil,  wine,  and  fruits  are  cultivated. 


It  may  be  considered 
in  four  divisions:  Ma- 
so  named  from 
the  Malays,  who  form 
the  bulk  of  the  native 
popxilation;  Austral- 
asia, which  signifies 
"Southern  Asia;"  Mi- 
cronesia, meaning  small  islands;  and  Polynesia,  many  islands. 

Oceania  is  peopled  chiefly  by  three  races,  the  Malays,  some  of 
whom  are  partly  civilized;  the  Papuan  Ifegroes,  who  rank  among 
the  lowest  of  the  human  family;  and  by  many  European  colonists. 
The  Chinese-Mongolians  form  an  important  portion  of  the  population 
in  the  cities  and  villages  of  Malaysia. 

Malaysia  is  the  richest  of  all  the  great  island  groups  of  the  earth, 

V  rivaling  Brazil  in  the  number  and  variety  of  its  vegetable  products. 

The  native  inhabitants  may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes — 

the  savage  and  the  semi-civilized. 

The  savages  have  no  writing,  no  regular  goTemment  or  religion, 
and  wear  scanty  clothing,  but  they  build  houses,  till  the  ground, 
make  pottery  and  canoes,  and  even  work  in  iron.  Other  Malayan 
tribes  have  written  languages,  regular  governments,  and  a  religion. 
They  wear  clothing,  weave  cotton  and  other  fabrics,  and  use  many 
tools  and  weapons. 

^Nearly  all  the  groups  south 

of  the  Philippines,  including 

Java,  Celebes,  the  Moluccas, 


OCEANIA. 
MAP  STUDIES. 

General  Questions. —  In  what  ocean  are  these  islands  situated  '  Is  the  map 
drawn  on  a  large  or  a  small  scale?  "What  is  the  distance  across  Australia  in  .i 
straight  line  from  east  to  west?  From  north  to  south?  Wliat  is  the  distance 
from  Australia  to  New  Zealand?  To  the  Sandwich  Islands?  From  the  Sand- 
wich Islands  to  the  Philippine  Islands?  What  is  the  length  of  New  Guinea? 
Of  Sumatra? 

Mention  the  chief  islands  of  Australasia.  Of  Malaysia.  Mention  some  of 
the  groups  of  Polynesia,     of  Micronesia. 

EXERCISES.— Locate  and  describe  the  coast  waters,  mountains,  rivers, 
lakes,  and  divisions  of  Australia. 

Sketch  Australia,  New  Zealand,  New  Guinea,  Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo, 
and  locate  chief  towns. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Oceania  is  a  term  used  to  denote  the  world  of  islands,  the  sixth  ▼reat 
division  of  the  globe,  stretching  nearly  9,000  miles  from  east  to  west  and 
5,000  from  north  to  south. 

'  127 


128 


OCEANIA— AUSTEAL  ASIA— POLYNESIA— MICRONESIA. 


and  parts  of  Borneo  and  Sumatra,  belong  to  the  Netherlands  and  con- 
stitute the  Dutch  East  Indies.  They  form  a  territory  more  than  four 
times  as  large  as  California,  and  have  a  population  of  22,000,000, 
ranking  next  to  the  British  Indies  in  extent  and  in  trade. 

Gold,  diamonds,  tin,  coal,  and  salt  are  abundant,  and  coffee,  tea, 
rice,  pepper,  cinnamon,  indigo,  camphor,  and  spices  are  exported. 
Java  is  the  most  populous  and  important  of  the  islands,  and  Batavia, 
its  capital,  is  a  fine  city  and  the  center  of  trade. 

The  Philippines  were  discovered  by  Magellan  in  1521,  and  named 
for  Philip  II.,  of  Spain,  to  which  country  they  still  belong.  They 
number  1,200  islands,  and  are  among  the  most  beautiful  on  the  globe. 

"Half  concealed  by  cocoanut  palms  lie  the  towns  and  villages,  amidst  the  vivid 
green  of  the  rice  fields  and  sugar  plantations;  while  the  woodlands  and  gardens  are 
beautilul  with  the  dazzling  hues  of  their  blossoms  and  fruits.  But  even  here  lurks  the 
serpent  with  its  fang,  clouds  of  locusts  come  to  devour,  and  the  frightful  pestilence 
thins  the  inhabitants." — A.  S.  Wallace. 

The  women  of  the  most  civilized  tribes  weave  cloths  of  the  fibers  of  the  banana  and 
pineapple,  some  rivaling  the  finest  Indian  muslin.  A  single  dress  of  pifia  has  been 
known  to  bring  $1,500.  Cotton  and  silks  are  also  woven.  The  looms  used  are  very  rude 
in  construction. 

Sugar,  manilla  hemp,  and  cordage,  coffee,  and  mother-of-pearl  are 

exported.     Manilla  is  the  great  emporium  of  trade. 

Australasia. — The  four  principal  islands  of  this  division  are 
Australia,  TTismania,  New  Zealand,  and  New  Guinea.   The 
first  three  are  provinces  of  Great  Britain.     Taken 
together,  all  the  islands  of  Australasia  are  about 
the  size  of  the  United  States.    The  popula- 
tion is  nearly  4,000,000. 


The  gold  fields  of  Australia  are  the  most  important  in 
the  world.  The  yield  of  its  gold  mines  in  1885  was  over 
$83,000,000.    Copper,  tin,  and  coal  are  extensively  mined. 

Magnificent  lines  of  steamers  keep  up  regular  communi- 
cation with  Europe  and  America,  and  the  colonies  own  a 
large  number  of  sailing  vessels.  An  ocean  telegraph  cable 
extends  to  Europe  by  way  of  Java  and  India.  Railroads 
and  telegraph  lines  connect  the  chief  cities.     The  leading 

exports  are  wool, 


The  native  inhabitants  belong  to  the  lowest 
type  of  mankind.     They  are  sooty  in  color,  have 
curly  hair,  which  they  ornament  with  bamboo 
combs,  bits  of  bone,  and  plumes.    Nose  and  ears 
are  also  adorned  with  bones,  sticks,  or  feathers 
thrust  through  them.     The  face,  arms,  and 
breast  are  sometin>es  tatooed.     Little  clothing 
is  worn,  and  they  live  in  rude  huts 
or  holes  in  the  ground  and  subsist  on 
roots,  fruits,  fish,  lizards,  and  insects.  ^^^ 


On  some  of  the  islands  the  natives  are  more  advanced,  and  they  make  fish- 
nets, shell  fish-hooks,  unglazed  ]K)ttery,  wooden  ))Owls,  tools  and  weapons  of 
stone  and  shell,  and  fcvsteful  wood  and  tortoise-shell  carvings. 

Australia.- — The  island-continent  is  about  as  large  as  the 
United  States  without  Alaska.  It  is  divided  into  several  prov- 
inces, each  under  a  governor  appointed  by  the  English  Crown, 
and  two  Houses  of  Parliament  elected  by  the  people. 

The  first  colony  was  established  in  1788,  at  Botany  Bay,  a  penal  settlement. 
The  present  population  is  2,300,000,  more  than  one-third  of  which  is  in  Vic- 
toria and  one-fifth  in  Melbourne  and  Sydney.  The  greater  portion  of  the  island 
is  uninhabitable. 

Over  66,000,000  sheep  feed  on  its  pastures,  and  wool  is  the 

great  agricultural  product.     Cattle,  horses,  and  pigs  are  raised 

in  immense  numbers.     Wheat  and  other  grains  are  extensively 

grown,  and  the  vineyards  yield  large  quantities  of  wine. 


wheat,  and  gold. 
Cities . —  Melbourne 
and  Sydney  are  large 
cities,  with  many  fine 
public  buildings,  parks, 
and  gardens. 

Tasmania  was 
discovered  in  1642, 
by  Tasman,  a 
Dutch  navigator. 
Its  productions  are 
similar  to  those  of 
Australia. 

New  Zealand 
i.s  one-half  greater 
than  New  England. 
It  has  a  fine  cli- 
mate, and  is  well 
adapted  to  grazing 
and  agriculture. 
Its  exports  are 
gold,  wool,  flax, 
and  timber.     The 

\  i  \  pine  of  New  Zealand  is 

very  fine  and  flexible,  and  is 

highly  valued  for  ship  building. 

Papua,  or  New  Guinea. — The 
only  European  inhabitants  are  mis- 
sionaries, who  are  trying  to  improve 
the  savage  natives.     The  Dutch  claim 
large  portions  of  the  island. 
Polynesia. — Polynesia  includes  several  archi- 
pelagoes, with  a  few  smaller  groups.    The  inhabitants  are 
far  superior  to  the  natives  of  Australasia,  and  by  some  writers 
are  regarded  as  distinct  from  the  Malays. 

The  Friendly  Islanders  are  described  as  follows:  "They  are  cleanly  in 
their  habits,  and  have  a  taste  for  neatness  and  order.  Though  without  metals, 
their  manufactures  are  very  beautiful.  They  make  the  most  delicate  mats,  and 
bark  cloth  thin  as  the  finest  paper,  and  ornamented  with  graceful  patterns  in 
various  colors.  Cups,  plates,  bowls,  and  bottles  are  made  of  wood  and  cocoanut 
shells,  beautifully  carved.  .  . 

"Their  canoes,  sometimes  100  feet  long,  are  marvels  of  ingenuity.  Iheir 
houses  are  oval,  with  central  pillars  and  ratters  to  support  the  thatched  roof. 
The  clothing  consists  of  the  ordmary  bandage  for  the  men,  and  a  neat  petticoat 
of  leaves  for  the  women. 

Micronesia  —North  of  the  Equator  the  ocean  is  studded 
with  countless  small  islands. 

The  Sandwich  Islands,  the  most  important  group,  are 
washed  by  the  "soft,  blue,  and  sunny  waters"  of  the  Pacific, 
and  fanned  by  balmy  airs.  The  natives  have  been  converted  to 
Christianity,  and  have  many  schools  and  churches.  The  govern- 
ment is  a  monarchy.  The  products  are  sugar,  coffee,  rice,  and 
taro,  a  root  much  used  for  food. 


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TEST    QUESTIONS    AND    EXEECISES. 


Name  the  continents  in  the  order  of  their  population.  Name  them  in  the 
order  of  their  civilization.  Point  out  those  regions  of  the  globe  where  the 
inhabitants  are  savages,  and  stivte  how  the  people  are  clothed ;  how  their  dwell- 
ings are  constructed;  what  food  they  eat;  what  ornaments  are  worn;  and  what 
weapons  are  used.  Point  out  the  regions  where  most  of  the  inhabitants  are 
nomads,  and  give  a  general  idea  of  the  habits,  dwellings,  property,  education, 
government,  and  religion  of  the  people.  Point  out  those  portions  of  the  earth 
where  the  people  are  most  intelligent. 

What  five  countries  of  the  world  have  the  most  extensive  territory?  Name 
the  six  most  densely  populated  countries.  Name  two  countries  which  together 
contain  three-sevenths  of  the  total  population  of  the  globe.  Name  all  the 
countries  that  have  a  republican  form  of  government.  Name  the  chief  limited 
monarchies;  the  chief  absolute  monarchies. 

Make  a  list  of  those  countries  where  wheat  is  a  leading  product;  Indian 
com;  rice;  cotton;  coffee;  tea;  sugar;  wine;  tropical  fruit;  silk;  spice;  tobacco. 
Make  a  list  of  those  countries  which  are  largely  engaged  in  stock  raising;  in  wool 
growing;  in  lumbering;  in  mining;  in  manufacturing;  in  commerce.  What 
countries  are  noted  for  their  fisheries?  For  their  furs?  Iron  mines?  Coal 
mines?  Saltmines?  Oil  wells?  Silver  mines?  Goldmines?  Diamond  mines? 
What  countries  take  the  lead  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods?  Woolen 
goods?    Iron  goods?    Fancy  goods?    Carpets?    In  foreign  tnwle  ? 


What  ten  countries  have  the  most  miles  of  railway  ?  What  country  has  as 
many  miles  of  railway  as  all  of  the  other  countries  of  the  world  together?  What 
countries  have  the  most  miles  of  railroad  to  the  1,000  square  miles  of  territory  9 
What  countries  depend  largely  on  caravans?    On  river  and  lake  routes? 

Every  important  country  is  to  be  represented  in  a  "World's  Fair,"  at  New 
York.  With  the  map  before  you,  state  what  products  each  country  will  be 
likely  to  contribute,  and  trace  a  route  over  which  they  may  be  sent.  (The  con- 
tributions should  include  products  of  agriculture,  of  the  forest,  of  the  waters,  of 
mines,  of  manufactories — whatever  will  best  represent  each  country.  One  pupil 
may  work  up  Asia,  another  Oceania,  and  so  on.) 

How  many  great  cities  of  the  world  are  north  of  the  parallel  on  which  Lon- 
don is  situated?  Draw  four  lines  to  represent  the  parallels  30°,  40°,  50°,  and 
60°  north  latitude,  and  locate  the  chief  cities  of  both  hemispheres  on  the  belts 
formed  by  these  lines.  What  two  parallels  include  the  largest  number  of  cities? 
Mention  ten  large  cities  in  the  order  of  their  population. 

What  countries  are  famed  for  their  institutions  of  learning?  Where  are  the 
finest  cities?  The  most  extensive  libraries,  and  works  of  art?  What  countries 
provide  schools  for  all  the  ijeople,  without  regard  to  class  or  wealth? 

EXERCISES.— From  memory,  sketch  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
indicating'  the  great  industrial  regions  and  chief  centers  of  trade. 

Sketch  the  most  important  countries  of  Europe ;  of  Asia,  Africa,  South 
America.    Sketch  ten  Important  islands. 


MISCELLANEOUS   TABLES. 


For  area  and  population  of  United  States  see  page  91. 


liength  of  principal  rivers,  area  of  Great  Lakes,  and  height  of  chief  mountains  of  North  America,  page  19. 
mountains  of  the  globe,  page  '62. 


Comparative  height  of  principal 


RAILWAYS  OPEN  IN  THE  PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD,  1885-1886. 

COMPILED  FROM  STATESMAN'S  YEAR  BOOK,  1887. 


EUROPE. 


Countries. 


Austria-Hungary 

Belgium 

Bulgaria 

Denmark 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Great  Britain  &  Ireland, 

Greece 

Italv 

Netherlands 

Norway  

Portugal 

Boumania 

Bussia. 

Servia  

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Turkey 

Total  for  Europe 


Length  in  Miles. 


13,957 

2,758 

268 

1,21.1 

819 

19,000 

23,538 

19,169 

327 

6,610 

1,482 

976 

948 

•   1,051 

16,024 

241 

6,741 

4,307 

1,778 

537 


120,744 


Miles  per  1 ,000  Sq. 
Miles  of  Territory. 


68.0 

242.0 

7.0 

88.0 

5.6 

93.0 

111.0 

159.0 

13  0 

58.0 

117.0 

7.8 

26.0 

22.0 

8.0 

13.0 

30.0 

25.0 

111.0 

8.4 


18.0 


ASIA. 


Countries. 


Asia  Minor 

Asiatic  Russia 

British  India 

Ceylon 

China 

Cochin  China 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Japan  

Total  for  above  countries 


Length  in  Miles. 


.S69 

616 

12,376 

178 

8 

90 

591 

349 


14,621 


Miles  per  1,000  Sq. 
Miles  of  Territory. 


0.5 

0.08 

.9 

.7 


3.9 
0.9 
2.4 


AFRICA. 


Countries. 


Algeria 

Cape  Colony  and  Natal 

Egypt. 

Mauritius 

Reunion 

Senegambia. 

Tunis  

Total  for  above  countries 


Length  in  Miles. 


1,124 

1,773 

1,280 

92 

78 

329 

256 


4,9; 


Miles  per  1,000  Sq. 
Miles  of  Territory. 


6.8 
7.0 
2.4 
130.0 
81.0 
3.4 
6.0 


6.25 


NORTH   AMERICA. 


Countries. 


Barbadoes 

Canada 

Costa  Rica 

Cuba 

Guadeloupe.. 

Guatemala 

Honduras 

Jamaica 

Martinique 

Mexico 

Nicaragua 

Salvador 

Trinidad 

United  States 

Total  for  North  America 


Length  in  Miles. 


26 

10,836 

176 

937 

19 

72 

69 

94 

121 

3,601 

89 

29 

51 

128,967 


145,087 


Miles  per  1,000  Sq. 
Miles  of  Territory. 


156.0 

3.1 

7.6 

21.6 

26.4 

1.5 

15 

21.5 

318.0 

4.8 

1  8 

4.0 

29.0 

42.0 


16.2 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


Countries. 


Argentine  Republic 

Brazil 

Chili 

Colombia,  United  States. 

Ecuador 

Guiana,  British 

Paraguay 

Peru  

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

Total  for  South  America 


Length  in  Miles. 


3,318 

4,414 

1,421 

141 

76 

21 

45 

1,002 

263 

102 


10,833 


Miles  per  1,000  Sq. 
Miles  of  Territory. 


2.90 
..W 

4.80 
.28 
.30 
.19 
.49 

2.10 

3.60 
.16 


1.5 


AUSTRALASIA. 


Countries. 


New  Zealand 

Ta-sraania 

Australia 

Total  for  Australasia 


Length  in  Miles. 


1,664 

2.i7 

6,060 


7,971 


Miles  per  1,000  Sq. 
Miles  of  Territory. 


16. 
8. 
2. 


2.6 


LENGTH  OF  PRINCIPAL  RIVERS,  AND 
AREA  OF  RIVER  BASINS. 


SOUTH    AMERICA. 


Name. 


Amazon. 
La  Plata 
Orinoco.. 


Length. 


3,600 
2,300 
1,550 


Area  of  Basin. 


2,275,000 

1,242,000 

340,000 


EUROPE. 


Name. 


Volga... 
Danut>e. 
Dnieper. 

Don 

Dwina.. 
Rhine... 


Length. 


5,300 
1,800 
1,120 
1,100 
1,000 
830 


Area  of  Basin. 


600,000 
811,000 
195,000 
170,000 
130,000 
90,000 


ASIA. 


Name. 


Length. 


Obi 

Yenisei 

Yang-tse-kiang 

Lena 

Amoor 

Hoang-ho 

Brahmapootra.. 

Ganges , 

Indus 

Me-Kong 

Euphrates 


3,000 
3,400 
3,320 

2,760 
2,650 
2,800 
2,300 
1,600 
1,850 
2,.500 
1,750 


Area  of  Basin. 


1,250,000 
1,010,000 
9.50,000 
800,000 
786,000 
714,000 
4.'i0,000 
410,000 
402,000 
400,000 
250,000 


AFRICA. 


Name. 


Nile 

Niger.... 
Zambesi 
Congo... 


Length. 


4,000 
2,500 
1,600 
3,500 


Area  of  Basin, 


1,425,000 
800,000 
900,000 

1,160,000 


AUSTRALIA. 


Name. 


Murray.. 


Length. 


1,500 


Area  of  Basin. 


600,000 


130 


AEEA  AND  POPULATION  OF  THEPEINOIPAL  COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

COMPILED  FEOM  THE  STATESMAN'S  YEAR  BOOK  AND  THE  ALMANACK  DE  GOTHA. 


NORTH    AMERICA. 


Countries. 


Canatla,  Dominion  of. 

United  States  (including  Indians). 

Mexico.' , 

Central  America 

West  Indies 

Bermudas 

Newfoundland 

Greenland 

Iceland 


Square  Miles. 


3,170,392 

3,501,404 

743,948 

179,6;  7 

94,279 

19 

42,718 

837,.')23 

39,756 


Population. 


4,324,810 

50,497,057 

10,460,703 

2,534,586 

4,412,703 

13,812 

197,332 

9,780 

72,445 


SOUTH    AMERICA. 


Countries. 


Argentine  Republic 

Jiolivia 

Brazil 

Chili 

Colombia,  United  States  of.. 

Ecuador 

(luiana,  British 

Guiana,  French 

Guiana,  Dutch 

Paraguay 

Peru 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

Faliciand  Islands 

Galapagos 


Square  Miles. 


1,125,086 

842,729 

3,218,166 

293,310 

504,773 

248,370 

85,400 

46,865 

46,058 

91,980 

500,0(10 

72,000 

439,120 

4,837 

2,950 


Population. 


3,072,763 

2,325,000 

12,922,375 

2,520,442 

4,000,000 

1,004,651 

269,330 

36,760 

68,381 

293,844 

2,621,844 

4.'i2,O00 

2,073,245 

1,394 

60 


EUROPE. 


Countries. 


Austria-Hungary , 

Belgium 

Denmark 

France 

Germany ; 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 

Greece 

Italy 

Montenegro 

Netherlands , 

Norway 

Portugal 

Roumania 

Russia 

Servia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Turkey 


Square  Miles. 


240,415 

11,369 

14,784 

204,030 

208,624 

121,571 

20,018 

114,380 

3,657 

12,727. 

122,323 

34,595 

50,159 

2,095,504 

18,781 

193,171 

170,927 

15,908 

130,935 


Population. 


39,224,511 
5,853,278 
1,980,259 

38,218,903 

46,852,780 

35,241,482 
1,979,453 

29,699,785 
236,000 
4,336,012 
1,806,900 
4,708,178 
5,376,000 

87,8i0,490 
1,826,000 

16,634,345 
4,682,769 
2,846,102 
9,277,040 


ASIA. 


Countries. 


Asiatic  Russia 

Asiatic  Turkey 

Arabia. 

Persia 

Afghanistan 

Beloochistan 

Briti.sh  India 

Farther  India  (Siam,  Anam,Bur.) 

Chinese  Empire 

Japan 

Bokhara 

Trans  Caucasia 


Square  Miles. 


6,548,600 
729,380 
950,000 
628,000 
260,000 
140,000 

1,574,460 
699,000 

4,179,.559 
148,456 
»4,000 
95,000 


Population. 


16,000.000 

16,174,056 
4,300,000 
7,653,000 
4,000,000 
1,000,000 
256,982,000 

31,300,000 
404,180,000 

37,868,000 
2,040,000 
4,173,000 


AFRICA. 


Countries. 


Morocco 

Algeria 

Tunis 

Tripoli,  Including  Fezzan 

EKypt 

Abyssinia. 

Cape  Colony , 

Natal 

Orange  Free  State 

Liberia. 

Sierra  Leone 

South  African  Republic 

Madagascar 

Mozambique 

Other  Countries  (Elstimated).. 


Square  Miles. 


219,000 

122,000 

42,000 

345,000 

1,153,000 

158,000 

231,000 

21,000 

70,000 

15,000 

468 

114,000 

228,000 

80,000 


Population. 


5,ooo,ooe 

3,817,000 
2,100,000 
1,000,000 
6,817,00(1 
4,000,000 
1,252,000 

425,000 

134,000 

1,068,000 

60,000 

750,000 
3,500,000 

600,000 
176,000,000 


OCEANIA. 


Countries. 


Australia 

Tasmania 

New  Zealand 

New  Guinea 

Java 

Borneo 

Celebes 

Sumatra 

Philippine  Islands.. 

Fiji  Islands 

Sandwich  Islands.... 


Square  Miles.     Population. 


2,945,000 

2,300,000 

26,000 

134,000 

104,000 

619,000 

300,000 

1,000,000 

51,000 

20,931,000 

280,000 

2,000,000 

73,000 

4,000,000 

168,000 

2,.500,000 

115,000 

5,661,000 

8,000 

128,000 

6,677 

80,000 

POPULATION  OF  THE  CHIEF  CITIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 


NORTH    AMERICA. 
DOM.  OF  CANADA. 

Montreal 141,000 

Toronto 87,000 

CJuebec 6.3,000 

Halifax 37,000 

Hamilton 36,000 

Ottawa. 28,000 

UNITED  STATES. 

New  York 1,206,000 

Philadelphia 847,000 

Brooklyn 567,0ii0 

Chicago 503,000 

Boston 36.3,000 

St.  Louis 331,000 

Baltimore 332,000 

Cincinnati 255,000 

San  Francisco 234,000 

New  Orleans 216,000 

CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

Guatemala 59,000 

San  Salvador 13,000 

San  Jose 12,000 

MEXICO. 

Mexico  (1882) 300,000 

Leon 120,000 

Guadalaxara 80,000 

Puebla 75,000 

Guanaxato 66,000 

WEST  INDIES. 

Havana 230,000 

Santiago  de  Cuba 45,000 

Matanzas 37,000 

Kingston 35,000 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 

U.  S.  OF  COLOMBIA. 

Bogota 100,000 

Medellln 40,000 

Panama 35,000 

VENEZUELA. 

Caracas 70,000 

Valencia 36,000 

Maracaybo 32,000 

GUIANA. 

Georgetown 37,000 

Paramaribo 23,000 

Cayenne 10,000 


BRAZIL. 

Rio  Janeiro 358,000 

Bahia 140,000 

Pernambuco 130,000 

Para 40,000 

San  Paulo 40,000 

ECUADOR. 

Quito 80,000 

Guayaquil 40,000 

PERU. 

Lima 102,000 

Callao 34,000 

Arequipa 30,000 

BOLIVIA. 

La  Paz 26,000 

Cochabamba 16,000 

CHILI. 

Santiago _ 200,000 

Valparaiso 95,000 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

Buenos  Ayres 400,000 

Cordova 50,000 

Rosario 42,000 

PARAGUATT. 

Asuncion 20,000 

Villa  Rica 13,000 

URUGUAY. 

Montevideo 105,000 

EUROPE. 

ENGLAND. 

London 4,150,000 

Liverpool 586,000 

Birmingham 434,000 

Manchester 376,000 

Leeds 339.000 

Sheffield 310,000 

Bristol 220,000 

Salford 211,000 

Hull 191,000 

Newcastle 155,000 

SCOTLAND. 

Glasgow 67.5,000 

Edinburgh 236,000 

Dundee 142,000 

Aberdeen „ 106,000 


IRELAND. 

Dublin 353,000 

Belfast 208,000 

Cork 80,000 

FRANCE. 

Paris 2,345,000 

Lyons 402,000 

Marseilles 376,000 

Bordeaux 240,000 

Lille 188,000 

Toulouse 148,000 

Etienne 118,000 

SWITZERLAND. 

Geneva 68,000 

Basle 62,000 

Berne 44,000 

Lausanne 36,000 

Zurich 25,000 

ITALY. 

Naples 463,000 

Milan 295,000 

Rome 274,000 

Turin 231,000 

Palermo 206,000 

Genoa I,'i9,000 

Florence 13.5,000 

Venice 130,000 

GERMAN  EMPIRE. 

Berlin 1,316,000 

Hamburg 306,000 

Breslau 299,000 

Munich  262,000 

Dresden 246,000 

Leipsic 170,000 

Cologne 162,000 

Konigsburg 151,000 

Magdeberg 114,000 

Hanover 140,000 

THE  NETHERLANDS. 

Amsterdam 373,000 

Rotterdam 174,000 

The  Hague 138,000 

DENMARK. 

Copenhagen 286,000 

Aarhuus 25,000 

NORWAY. 

Christiania 129,000 

Bergen 47,000 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

Vienna 1,104,000 

Buda-Pesth 423,000 

i'rague 162,000 

Trieste 144,000 

Lemberg _ 110,000 

131 


RUSSLA. 

St.  Petersburg 930,000 

Moscow 754,000 

Warsaw 407,000 

Odessa 155,000 

Riga J..  169,000 

Kishenev 130,000 

Cracow 129,000 

SPAIN. 

Madrid 398,000 

Barcelona 249,000 

Valencia _ 145,000 

Seville 134,000 

BELGIUM. 

Brussels 417,000 

Antwerp 198,000 

Ghent 143,000 

Liege 135,000 

TURKEY. 

Constantinople 874,000 

Adriauople 100,000 

Salonica 60,000 

BULGARIA. 

Rustchuk 26,000 

Varna 24,000 

SERVIA. 

Belgrade 42,000 

ROUMANIA. 

Bucharest 221,000 

Jassy 90,000 

Galati 80,000 

GREECE. 

Athens 84,000 

}»atras 26,000 

PORTUGAL. 

Lisbon 247,000 

Oporto 106,000 

SWEDEN. 

Stockholm 216,000 

Gottenburg 91,000 

ASIA. 

AFGHANISTAN. 

Cabul 65,000 

Herat 50,000 

Candahar - „ 60,000 


ARABIA. 

Muscat 60,000 

Aden 60,000 

Mecca 50,000 

Medina 20,000 

JAPAN. 

Tokio 903,000 

Osaka 354,000 

Kioto 255,000 

Yokohama 70,000 

CHINESE  EMPIRE. 

Canton... 1,500,000 

Pekin  (Est.  1886) 1,000,000 

Tientsin 930,000 

Hang  Chow 800,000 

Foo  Chow 600,000 

Shanghai 600,000 

BRITISH  INDIA. 

Calcutta. 872,000 

Bombay 773,000 

Madras 405,000 

Hyderabad .<;6S,000 

Benares 200,000 

Delhi 174,000 

Cawnpore 151,000 

FARTHER  INDIA. 

Bangkok 600,000 

Saigon 120,000 

Mandalay 100,000 

Singapore 60,000 

SIBERIA. 

Tiflis „ 104,000 

Tashkent 100,000 

Samarcand 36,000 

Irkutsk „ 35,000 

Tomsk 84,000 

PERSIA. 

Teheran 200,000 

Tabris 165,000 

Meshed k 60,000 

Ispahan „ 60,000 

TURKEY. 

Smyrna _ 200,000 

Damascus _ 200,000 

Bagdad 180,000 

Aleppo 120.000 

Beyrout _ 60,000 

Trebizond ». 45,000 


132 


POPULATIOlf  OP  THE  CHIEF  CITIES  OP  THE  WORLD— OP  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


POPULATION  OP  THE  CHIEF  CITIES  OF  THE  WORLD.— CONTINUED. 


AFRICA. 

EGYPT. 

Cairo 375,000 

Alexandria 232,000 

Khartoum 60,000 

Damietta 44,000 

THE  BAEBARY  STATES,. 

Tunis 145,000 

Algiers 71,000 


GUINEA  COAST. 

Coomassie 60,000 

Abomey 50,000 

Lagos 35,000 

St.  Paul  de  Loanda 20,000 

MonrOTia 15,000 

INDIAN  COAST. 

Zanzibar 80,000 

Gondar 20,000 

Mozambique 15,000 


MADAGASCAR. 

TananariTO 100,000 

Port  Louis 70,000 

CAPE  COAST. 

Cape  Town 46,000 

Durban 17,000 


OCEANIA. 

AUSTRALASIA. 

Melbourne 365,000 

Sydney 280,000 

Adelaide „ 68,000 

Auclcland 57,048 

Dunedin 46,000 

Ballarat 41,000 

Sandhurst „ 89,000 


MALAY'SIA. 

Manila 270.000 

Batavia IM.OOO 

Surabaya 100,000 

Samarang 60,000 

SANDWICH  ISLANDS. 
Honolulu 21,000 

FIJI  ISLANDS. 
Levuka 30,000 


POPULATION  OF  THE  PEI:N'0IPAL  CITIES  AI^D  TOWI^S  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ACCORDING  TO  THE  CENSUS  OF  1880. 


Aberdeen,  Dak 5,600 

Adrian,  Mich 7,849 

Akron,  0 16,512 

Albany,  N   Y 90,758 

Alexandria,  Va 13,659 

Allegheny,  Pa 78,682 

Allentown,  Pa »  18,063 

Alliance,  O 4,636 

Alpena,  Mich 6,153 

Alton,  111 8,975 

Altoona.Pa 19,710 

Amsterdam,  N.  Y 9,466 

Andover  (tp.),  Mass 6,169 

Annapolis,  Md 6,642 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich 8,061 

*Anoka,  Minn 4,629 

Appleton,  Wis 8,005 

Ashland,  Pa 6,052 

Ashtabula,  0 4,445 

Atchison,  Kan 15,105 

Athens,  Ua 6,039 

Atlanta,  Ga 37.409 

Atlantic  City,  N.  J 5,477 

Attleboro  (tp.).  Mass 11,111 

Auburn,  Me 9,565 

Auburn,  N.  Y 21,924 

Augusta,  Ga 21,891 

Augusta,  Me 8,665 

Aurora,  111 11,873 

Aurora,  Ind 4,435 

Austin,  Tex 10,960 

Baltimore,  Md 332,313 

Bangor,  Me 16,866 

♦Baraboo,  Wis 4,168 

Batavia,  N.  Y 4,845 

Baton  Rogue,  La 7  ,197 

Battle  Creek,  Mich 7,063 

Bay  City,  Mich 20,693 

Bayonne,  N.  J 9,372 

Belfast,  Me 6,308 

Bellaire,  0 8,025 

Belleville,  III 10,683 

Bennington  (tp.),  Vt 6,333 

Biddeford,  Me 12,651 

Binghamton  N.  Y 17,317 

fBismarck,  Dak 8,000 

Bloomfield  (tp.),  N.J 6,748 

Bloomington,  III 17,180 

Boston,  Mass 362,839 

Bowling  Green,  Ky 6,114 

Bradford,  Pa 9,197 

Braidwood,  111 6,524 

♦Brainerd,  Minn 7,110 

Bridgeport,  Conn 27,643 

Brldgeton,  N.  J 8,722 

Bristol,  Pa 5,273 

BrookUne  (tp.),  Mas.s 8,057 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 666,663 

Brunswick  (tp ),  Me 6,384 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 165,134 

Burlington,  la 19,450 

Burlington,  N.J 6,090 

Burlington  (tp.),Vt 11,365 

Cairo,  111 9,011 

Calumet  (tp.),  Mich 8,299 

Cambridge,  Mass 62,669 

Camden,  N.  J 41,659 

Canandaigua,  N.  Y 6,726 

Canton,  0 12,268 

Carbondale,  Pa 7,714 

Carlisle,  Pa 6,209 

Cedar  Rapids,  la 10,104 

Champaign,  111 5,106 

Charleston,  S.  C 49,984 

Charlotte,  N.  C 7,094 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 12,892 

Chelsea,  Mass 21,782 

Chester,  Pa 14,997 

Chicago,  111 603,186 

Chicopee  (tp.),Mass 11,286 

ChiUicothe,  0 10,938 

Cincinnati,  0 255,139 

Circleville,  0 6,046 

Cleveland,  0 160,146 

Clinton,  la 9,052 

Clinton  (tp.).  Mass 8,029 

Cohoes,  N.  Y 19,416 

Coldwater,  Mich 4,681 

Columbus,  Ind 4,813 

Columbia,  Pa 8,312 

Columbia,  S.  C 10,036 

Columbus,  Ga. 10,123 

Columbus,  0 51,647 

Concord,  N.  H 13,843 

Corry,  Pa 5,277 

Council  Bluffs,  la 18,063 

CoTingtoD,  Ky 29,720 

* 


Crawfordsville,  Ind 6,251 

Creston,  la 6,081 

Cumberland,  Md 10,693 

Dallas,  Tex 10,358 

Danbury  (tp.),  Conn 11,666 

Danville,  III 7,733 

Danville,  Pa 8,346 

Danville,  Va 7,526 

Davenport,  la 21,831 

Dayton,  O 38,678 

tDeadwood,  Dak 4,500 

Decatur,  111 9,547 

Dedham  (tp,).  Mass 6,233 

Delaware,  O •. 6,894 

Denver  Col 35,629 

Des  Moines,  la 22,408 

Detroit,  Mich 116,340 

Dover.N.  H 11,687 

Dubuque,  la 22,254 

♦Duluth,  Minn 17,418 

Dunkirk,  N.  Y 7,248 

Dunmore,  Pa 6,151 

Easton,  Pa 11,924 

East  Orange  (tp.),  N.  J 8,349 

Ea.st  Saginaw,  Mich 19,016 

Eau  Claire,  Wis 10,U9 

Elgin,  III 8,787 

Elizabeth  N.  J 28,229 

Elkhart,  Ind 6,953 

Ellsworth,  Me 6,052 

Elmira,  N.  Y 20,.'541 

Elyria,  0 4,777 

Emporia,  Kan 4,631 

Erie,  Pa 27,737 

Evanston,  (tp.).  Ill 6,703 

Evansville,  Ind 29,280 

Fall  River,  Mass 48,961 

tFargo,  Dak 9,000 

*Faribault,  Minn 6,459 

•Fergus  Falls  Minn 4,284 

Fishkill  (tp.).  N.Y 10,732 

Fitchburg,  Mass  12,429 

Flint,  Mich 8,409 

Flushing,  N.  Y 6,683 

Fond  du  I^c,  Wis 13,094 

Fort  Madison,  la 4,679 

Fort  Scott,  Kan 6,372 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 26,880 

Fort  Worth,  Tex... 6,663 

Franiingham  (tp.),  Mass 6,235 

Frankfort,  Ky 6,958 

Franklin,  Pa 5,010 

Frederick,  Md 8,659 

Fredericksburg,  Va 6,010 

Freeport,  111 8,516 

Freemont,  0 8,4^6 

Galena,  111 6,451 

Galesburg,  111 11,437 

Gallon,  0 6,635 

Gallipolis,  O 4,400 

Galveston,  Tex 22,248 

Gardiner,  Me 4,439 

Georgetown    D.  C 12,.578 

Glen  Falls,  N.  Y 4,900 

Gloucester,  Mass 19,329 

Gloucester  C,  New  Jersey....  6,347 

Gloversville,  N.Y 7,133 

tGrand  Forks,  Dak 7,000 

Grand  Haven,  Mich 4,862 

GrandRapids  Mich 82,016 

Green  Bay,  Wis 7,464 

Hagerstown,  Md 6,627 

Hamilton,  O 12,122 

Hannibal,  Mo 11,074 

Harrisburg,  Pa 30,762 

Harrison,  N.  J 6,898 

Hartford,  Conn 42,015 

Haverhill,  Mass 18,472 

Hazleton,  Pa „  6,935 

Hempstead  (tp.),  N.  Y 18,164 

Henderson,  Ky 6,366 

Hoboken,  N.J. 30,999 

Holyoke,  Mas-s 21,915 

Horncllsville,  N.  Y 8,195 

Houston,  Tex 16,513 

Hudson,  N.  Y 8,670 

tHuron,  Dak 3,500 

Hyde  Park,  111 15,716 

Indianapolis,  Ind 75,056 

Iowa  City,  la 7,123 

Ironton,  0 8,857 

Ishpeming,  Mich 6,039 

Ithaca,  N.  V 9,105 

Jackson,  Mich 16,106 

Jackson,  Miss 6,204 

Jackson,  Tenn 5,377 

Jacksonville,  Fla 7,650 

Censos  of  188S. 


Jacksonville,  111 10,927 

Jamaica  (tp.),  N.  Y 10,089 

Jamestown,  N.  Y 9,357 

fJamestown,  Dak 4,000 

Janesville,  Wis 9,018 

Jefferson  City,  Mo 5,271 

Jeffersonville,  Ind 9,357 

Jersey  City,  N.  J 120,7 .'2 

Joliet,  111 11,657 

Joplin,  Mo 7,038 

Kalamazoo,  Mich 8,047 

Kankakee  (tp.),m 6,782 

Kansas  City,  Mo 55,785 

Keene,  N.  H 6,784 

Kenosha,  Wis 6,039 

Keokuk,  la 12,117 

Key  West,  Fla 9,890 

Kingston,  N.  Y 18,344 

Knoxville,  Tenn 9,693 

La  Crosse,  Wis 14,505 

Lafayette,  Ind 14,860 

Lake  (tp.).  Ill 18,.t96 

Lancaster,  0 6,803 

Lancaster,  Pa 25,769 

Lansing,  Mich 8,319 

Lansingburg,  N.  Y 7,432 

La  Porte,  Ind 6,195 

Lawrence,  Kan 8,510 

Lawrence,  Mass 39,151 

Lawrenceourgh,  Ind 4,668 

Leadville,  Col 14,820 

J,*avenworth,  Kan 16,546 

Lebanon,  Pa 8,778 

liBwiston,  Me 19,083 

Lexington,  Ky 10,656 

Lincoln,  III 5,639 

Lincoln,  Neb 13,003 

Litchfield,  III 4,326 

Little  Falls,  N.  Y 6,910 

Little  Rock,  Ark 13,138 

Lock  Haven,  Pa 6,845 

Lockport,  N.  Y 18,522 

IjOgansport,  Ind 11,198 

I.ong  Island  C,  N.  Y 17,129 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 11,183 

Louisville,  Ky 123,758 

Lowell,  Ma-ss 59,475 

Lynchburg,  Va 15,959 

Lynn,  Mass 38,274 

Macon,  Ga 12,748 

Madison,  Ind 8,945 

Madison,  Wis 10,324 

MahanoyCitv,  Pa 7,181 

Maiden  (tp.),Mass 12,017 

Manchester,  N.  H 32,630 

Manchester,  Va 5,729 

Manistee,  Mich 6,930 

Manitowoc,  Wis 6,367 

♦Mankato,  Minn 7,845 

Mansfield,  O 9,859 

Marblehead  (tp.),  Mass 7,467 

Marietta,  O 6,444 

Marlboro  (tp.),Mass 10,127 

Marquette,  Mich 4,690 

Marshall,  la 6,240 

Marshall,  Tex 6,624 

Marshalltown,  la 6,.')00 

Martinsburg.  W.  Va 6,335 

Marysville,  Cal 4,321 

Massillon,  0 6,836 

Mattoon,  HI 6,742 

Maysville,  Ky 5,220 

McKeesport,  Pa 8,212 

Meadville,  Pa 8,860 

Medford  (tp).  Mass 7,573 

Memphis,  Tenn 33,592 

Meriden  (tp.).  Conn 18,.'i40 

Michigan  Citv,  Ind 7,366 

Middletown  (tp.).  Conn 11,7.'>2 

Middletown,  N.  Y 8,494 

Millville,  N.J 7,660 

Milwaukee,  Wis 116,587 

•Minneapolis,  Minn 129,200 

tMitchell,  Dak 4,000 

Moberly,  Mo 6,070 

Mobile,  Ala 29,132 

Moline,  111 7,800 

Monmouth   111 6,000 

Monroe,  Mich 4,930 

Montgomery,  Ala 16,713 

Morristown,  N.  J„ 6,418 

Mt.  Vernon,  0 6,249 

Muncie,  Ind 5,219 

Muscatine,  la. 8,296 

Muskegon,  Mich.. 11,262 

Nashua,  >r.  H 13,397 

Nashville,  Tenn 43,350 

(Tp.  denotes  township.) 


Natchez,  Miss 

Natick  (tp.),  Mass 

•Neenah,  Wis 

New  Albany,  Ind 

Newark,  N.  J 

Newark,  0 

New  Bedford,  Mass 

New  Berne,  N.  C 

New  Brighton,  N.  Y 

New  Britain  (tp.),  Conn 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J 

Newburg,  N.  Y 

Newburyport,  Mass 

Newcastle,  Pa 

New  Haven,  Conn 

New  ijondon.  Conn 

New  Orleans,  La 

Newport,  Ky 

Newport,  R.  I 

Newton,  Mass 

NewYork,  N.  Y 1 

Norfolk,  Va 

Norristown    Pa 

North  Adaiiis,  Mass 

Northampton  (tp.),  Mass 

Norwalk,  Conn 

Norwalk,  O 

Norwich,  Conn 

Oakland,  Cal 

•Oconto,  Wis 

Ogden,  Utah 

Ogdensburg,  N.  Y 

Oil  City,  Pa 

Omaha,  Neb 

Orange,  N.  J 

Oskaloosa,  la 

Oshkosh,  Wis 

Oswego,  N.  Y 

Ottawa,  III 

Ottumwa,  la 

Owego,  N.  Y 

Owensboro,  Ky 

Paducah,  Ky ... 

Paris,  111 

Parkersburg,  W.  Va 

Passaic  City,  N.J. ..,...« 

Paterson,  N.J 

Pawtucket,  R.  I _ 

Peekskill,  N.  Y 

Pekin,  111 

Pensacola,  Fla 

Peoria,  111 

Perth  Amboy,  N.  J 

Peru,  Ind 

Petersburg,  Va 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Phillipsburg,  N.  J 

Phcemxville,  Pa 

Piqua,  O 

Pittsburgh,  Pa.. 

Pittsfield  (tp.).  Mass 

Pittston,  Pa 

I-lainfield,  N.J 

Plattsburg,  N.  Y' 

Plymouth  (tp.),  Mass 

Plymouth,  Pa 

Pomeroy,  0 

Pontiae,  Mich 

Port  Huron,  Mich 

Port  Jervis,  N.  Y 

Portland,  Me 

Portland,  Ore 

Portsmouth,  N.  H 

Portsmouth,  O 

Portsmouth,  Va 

Pottstown,  Pa 

Pottsville,  Pa 

Poughkecpsie,  N.  Y 

Providence,  R.  I 

Quincy,  111.. 


Quincy  (tp.).  Mass  . 

Ilacine,  Wis 

Rahway,  N.  J 

Kaleijjh,  N.  C 

Reading,  Pa 

•Red  Wing,  Minn.. 

Richmond,  Ind 

Richmond,  Va 

•Rochester,  Minn... 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

Roekford,  111 

Kock  Island,  111 

Rockland,  Me 

Rome,  N.  Y 

Rutland  (tp.),  Vt.... 

Saco,  Me. 

Sacramento,  Cal 


7,058 

8,479 

4,910 

16,423 

136,508 

9,600 

26,845 

6,443 

12,679 

13,979 

17,166 

18,049 

13,538 

8,418 

62,882 

10,.'i37 

216,090 

20,433 

15,693 

16,995 

,206,299 

21,966 

13,063 

10,191 

12,172 

13,956 

6,704 

21,143 

34,555 

4,880 

6,069 

10,341 

7,315 

80,518 

13,207 

4,698 

15,748 

21,116 

7,834 

9,004 

6,525 

6,231 

8,036 

4,373 

6,582 

6,.032 

61,031 

19,030 

6,893 

6,993 

6,845 

29,259 

4,808 

6,280 

21,656 

847,170 

7,181 

6,682 

6,031 

156,389 

13,364 

7,472 

8,125 

6,246 

7,093 

6,066 

6,560 

4,509 

8,883 

8,678 

83,810 

17,577 

9,690 

11,321 

11,388 

5,305 

13,253 

20,207 

104,857 

27,268 

10,.570 

16,031 

6,455 

9,265 

43,278 

6,870 

12,742 

63,600 

6,313 

89,366 

13,129 

11,6.59 

7,599 

12,194 

12,149 

6,389 

21,420 


Saginaw,  Mich. 10,525 

Salem,  Mass 27,563 

Salem,  N.  o 5,056 

Salt  Lake  C,  Utah 20,768 

San  Antonio,  Tex 20,550 

Sandusky,  0 15,838 

San  Francisco,  Cal 233,950 

San  Jose,  Cal 12,.567 

Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex 6,635 

Saratoga  Sp.,  N.Y 10,820 

Savannah,  Ga. 30,709 

Scbenectai.y,  N.  Y .' 13,6.55 

Scranton,  Pa 45,8.^0 

Sedalia,  Mo 9,561 

Selma,  Ala 7,520 

Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y 5,880 

Shamokin,  Pa 8,184 

Sharon,  Pa 5,684 

Sheboygan,  Wis 7,314 

Shenandoah,  Pa 10,147 

Sherman,  Tex 6,093 

Shreveport,  La. 8,009 

Silver  Cliff,  Col 6,(M0 

Sing  Sing,  N.  Y 6,678 

Sioux  City,  la 7,366 

tSioux  Falls,  Dak 8,000 

Somerville,  Mass 24,933 

South  Bend,  Ind 13,280 

Springfield,  III 19,743 

Springfield,  Mass 33,340 

Springfield,  Mo 6,522 

Springfield,  0 20,730 

St.  Albans  (tp.),  Vt 7,193 

Stamford  (tp.),  Conn 11,297 

Staunton,  Va 6,664 

St.  Charles,  Mo 6,014 

•St.  Cloud,  Minn 4,360 

Sterling,  III 5,087 

Steubenvllle,  0 12,093 

•Stillwater,  Minn 16,437 

St.  Johnsbury  (tp.),  Vt 6,800 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 32,431 

Stockton,  Cal 10,282 

Stoningtou  (tp.).  Conn 7,355 

St.  Louis,  Mo 350,518 

*.St.  Paul,  Minn 111,397 

Streator,  111 5,157 

Syracuse  N.  Y 61,792 

Tamaqua,  Pa 6,730 

Taunton,  Mass 21,213 

Terre  Haute,  Ind 26,042 

Tiffin,  O 7,879 

Titusville,  Pa 9,046 

Toledo,  0 60,137 

Topeka,  Kan 1,9,4.52 

Trenton,  N.  J 29,910 

Troy,  N.Y 66,747 

Tucson,  iiriz. 7,007 

Union,  N.J 5,849 

Urbana,  0 6,252 

Utica,  N.  Y 33,914 

Vallejo,  Cal 6,987 

Valparaiso,  Ind 4,461 

Vicksburg,  Miss 11,814 

Vincennes,  Ind 7,680 

Virginia  C,  Nev 10,917 

Waco,  Tex 7,296 

Waltham  (tp.).  Mass 11,712 

Warren,  0 4,425 

Washington,  D.  C 147,293 

Waterbury,  Conn 20,270 

Waterloo,  la 6,630 

Watertcwn,  N.  Y 10,697 

Watertown,  Wis 7,883 

tWatertown,  Dak 6,000 

Westchester,  Pa 7,046 

Westfield  (tp.l.  Mass 7,,587 

West  Troy   N.Y 8,820 

Weymouth  (tpj,  Mass 10,670 

Wheeling,  W.  Va 30,737 

Wilkcsbarre,  I'a 23,339 

Williamsport,  Pa 18,934 

Wilmington,  I>el 42,478 

Wilmington,  N.  C 17,360 

•Winona,  Minn 16,624 

Woburn  (tp.).  Mass 10,931 

Woonsocket,  R.  1 16,050 

Wooster,  0 6,840 

Worcester,  Mass 68,291 

Wyandotte,  Kpn 6,149 

Xenia.0 7,026 

tYankton,  Dak 6,000 

Yonkers,  N.  Y 18,892 

York,  Pa I.V>40 

Y'oungstown,  0 15,431 

Ypsilanti,  Mich. 4,984 

Zanesville,  0 18,113 


f  Estimated. 


PEONOUNOING   YOOABULART. 

In  the  words  which  follow,  final  a,  when  the  syllable  is  unaccented,  has  the  sound  of  final  a  in  Amcri-ca,  and  the  teacher  should  make  a  careful  distinction  between  this  sound  and  that  heard  In  word« 

where  it  is  joined  with  h,  as  in  Ne-ahu'-za,  and  has  the  sound  of  a  in  ah  or  art. 

Aberdeen Ab-er-deen'. 

Abomey Ab-o-may'. 

Abyssinia Ab-is-sin'-e-a. 

Acapulco Ah-kah-pool'-ko. 

Acarai Ah-kah-rah'-e. 

Aconcagua Ah-kon-kah'-gwah 

Adt'laioe Ad'-e-lade. 

Aden Ah'-den  ( A'-den). 

Adirondack Ad-i-rou'-dak. 

Adrianopie Ad-re-an-o'-pl. 

Adriatic Ad-re-atMk. 

JEgean E-je'-an. 

^tna    Et'-na. 

Afghanistan Af-gahn-is-tahn'. 

Agra Ah'-grah  (A'-gra). 

Agulims Ah-gool'-yas. 

Aix-la-Chai)elle...Akes-lah-sha-per. 

Ajaccio Ah-yaht-cho'. 

Alabama Al-ah-bah'-ma. 

Alaska A-Ia-s'-kah. 

Albany All'-ba-ne. 

Albemarle Al-be-niarl'. 

Aldertiey  AU'-der-ny. 

Aleutian  (Is.) A-lu'-she-an. 

Alexandria Al-ex-an'-dre-a. 

Algeria. Ai-jee'-re-a. 

Algiers Al-geeri;'. 

Allahabad Ahl-lah-hah- 

bahd'. 

Alleghany Al'-le-ga'-ny. 

Altai All-ti'. 

Altamaha AU-ta-ma-haw'. 

Altorf All'-torf. 

Amiens Am'-e-enz(Ah-me- 

ang'). 

Araoor Ah-moor'. 

Amoy A-moi'. 

Anadir An  a-deer'. 

Auaui A-nani'(A'-nam), 

Andaman An-<ia-man'. 

Andes An'-deez, 

Anglesey Ang'-el-se. 

Angola An-go  -lah. 

Angora  An-go'-rah. 

Annan An'- nan. 

Annapolis An-nap'-o-lis. 

Anticosti An-te-kos'-te. 

Antigua An-te'-gah. 

Antilles Ahn-teelz'. 

Antiparos An-tip'-a-ros. 

Antisana Ahn-te-sah'-nah. 

Antrim An'-trim. 

Antwerp Ant'-wurp. 

Apalachee Ap-a-lach'-ee. 

A|>en  nines Ap'-pen-nines. 

Appalachian Ap-pa-la'-che-an. 

Apure Ah-poo'-ra. 

Arabia Ar-a'-be-a. 

Aragou Ar'-a-gon. 

Aral Ar'-al. 

Ararat Ar'-a-rat. 

Archangel. Ark-an'-jel. 

Archipelago Ar-ke-pol'-a-go. 

Arctic Ark'-tik. 

Arequipa Ahr-e-kee'-pah. 

Argenteuil Ar-zhan-tool'. 

Argentine Ar'-jen-tine. 

Aroostook A-roos'-took. 

Argyle Ar-gyle'. 

Arica Ah-reek'-ah. 

Arizona Ar-e-zo'-na. 

Arkansas Ar-kan'-sas. 

Armenia Ar-mee'-ne-a. 

Ascension As-sen'-shun. 

Ashantee Ash-an-tee'. 

Asia A'-she-a. 

Assam As-sam'. 

Assinniboin As-sin'-e-boin. 

Atacama Ah-tah-kah'-mah. 

Assyria As-sir'-e-a. 

Astrakhan As-tra-kan'. 

Atbara At-bah'-rah. 

Athabasca Ath-a-bas'-ka. 

Athens ...Ath'-ens. 

Auckland Awk'-land. 

Augsburg Awgs'-burg. 

Austerlitz Aws'-ter-litz. 

Australasia Aws-tral-a'-she-a. 

Australia Aws-tra'-le-a. 

Austria Aws'-tre-a. 

Auvergne 0-vairn'. 

Ava A'-va  (Ah'-vah). 

Avignon Ah-veen-vong'. 

Ayr Air. 

Azof. Az'-of. 

Ajiores A-zores', 

Baalbec Bawl'-bek  (-bekO- 

Bab-el-Mandeb....Ba'-bel-man''-deb. 

Baden Bah'-den  (Bad-). 

Bagdad Bag'-dad  (-dad'). 

Bahamas Ba-ha'-maz. 

Bahia Bah-e'-ah. 

Bahr  el  Azrek Bahr-ol-az'-rek. 

Baikal Bi'-kal. 

Baku Bah-koo'. 

Balearic  (Is.) Bal-e-ar'  ik. 

Balize Bah-leez'. 

Balkan Bahl-khan'. 

Balkash Bahl-kash'. 

Balmoral Bal-mor'-al. 

Banda  Oriental Bahn'-dah-o-re- 

en-tal'. 

Bangkok Bang-kok'. 

Bannockburn Ban'-nok-burn. 

Barbadoes Bar-ba'-doz. 

Barca Bar'-ka. 

Barcelona Bar-ce-lo'-nah. 


f  Basel Bah'-zl. 

t  Basle Bahl. 

Bassorah Bah.s'-80-rah. 

Batavia Ba-ta'-ve-a. 

Baton-Rouge Bat-un-roozh'. 

Bavaria Ba-va-re-a. 

Bayonne Bah-yon'. 

Beaufort Bu'-tort. 

Bechuanas Bet-choo-ah'-naz. 

Behring Beer'-ing. 

Belod-eT-Jerid Bel-ed-el-jo-reed'. 

Belfast Bel-fast'  (Ber-). 

Belgium Bel-je-um. 

Belle  Isle Bel-ile'. 

Belleville Bel'-vil  (-vecl'i. 

Beloochistau Kel-oo-cliis-tahn'. 

Benares Ben-ah'-roz. 

Ben-coolea Ben-koo'-len. 

Bengal Ben-gawl'. 

Ben^uela Bon-ga'-lah. 

Benicia Be-nish'-e-a. 

Benin Be-neen'. 

Ben  l.nmond Ben-lo'-mond. 

Ben  Nevis Ben-no'-vis. 

Ben  Wyvis Ben- wi'- vis. 

Bergen Burg'-en. 

Berkshire Burk'  sheer. 

Berlin Ber-iin' (Ber'-). 

Bermudas Ber-mu'-da. 

Berne Berne. 

Berwick Ber'-wick  (-rik). 

Beyrout Ba'-root  (Bi'-). 

Biafra Be-af'-ra. 

Bilbao Bil-bah'-o. 

Birmingham Bur'-ming-ham. 

Biscay Bis'-ka. 

Blanc  (Mont) Mong-blong'. 

Blanco Blan'-ko. 

Bogota Bo-go- tab'. 

Bohmerwald Bo'-nier-wawld. 

BoLs  le  Due Bwah-le-du. 

B'jkhara Bo-kah'-rah. 

Bolan Bo-lahn'. 

Bolivia Bo-liv'-e-a. 

Bologna Bo-lone'-yah. 

Bolor  Tagh Bo-lor'-tagh'. 

Bombay Bom-ba'. 

Bonaven  turo Bo-na^ven-tu'-  rah 

Benin Bo-neen', 

Boothia Boo'-the-a. 

Bordeaux Bor-do'. 

Borneo Bor'-ne-o. 

Bornou Bor-noo'. 

f  Bosphorus Bos'-fo-rus. 

\  Bosporus Bos'-po-rus. 

Bothnia Both -ne-a. 

Boulogne Boo- lone'. 

Bourlron Boor'-bon{-bong'). 

Brabant Brah-bant'. 

Brahmaoootra Brah-ma-poo'-tra. 

Bras  d' Or ...Brah-dore'. 

Brazil Bra-zeel'  (-zil'). 

Brazos .Brah'-zos. 

Bremen Breni'-en. 

Brescia Bresh'-e-ah. 

Breslau Bres'-law. 

Bretagne Bre-tahn'. 

Brighton Bri'-ton. 

Britain Brit'-tn. 

Brittany Brit'-ta-ne. 

Brocken Brok'-en. 

Bruges Broo'-jez, 

Brunn Broon. 

Bnissels Brus'-sels. 

Bucharest Boo-ka-rest'. 

Bucharia Boo-ka'-re-a. 

Buda Boo'-dah. 

Buenos  Ayres Bo'-nus  a'-riz 

(Bu'-). 
Bug Boog. 

Cal>es Kahb'-ez. 

Cabul Kah-lwol'. 

Cadiz Ka'-diz. 

Caj^liari Kalil'-yah-re. 

Cairo Ki'-ro. 

Caithness Kath'-ness. 

(i)alais Kal'-is. 

(Calcutta Kal-kut'-ta. 

Calicut Kal'-i-kut. 

California Kal-e-for'-ne-a, 

(Dallao Kal-yah'-o. 

Cambay Kam'-ba'. 

Cambodia Kam-bo'-de-ai 

Cambridge Kame'-bridge. 

Cameroon Kam-er-roon'. 

Campagna Kam-pahn'-yah. 

Campeachy Kam-pe'-che. 

Canada Kan'-onia. 

Canaries Ka-na'-reez. 

Canaveral Kan-yah'-ver-al. 

Candahar Kan-dah-har'. 

Candia Kan'-de-ah  •- 

Canso Kan'-«o. 

Canton Kan-ton'. 

Cape  Breton Kape-brit'-tn. 

Caprera Kah-pra'-ra.  / 

Capua Kap'-u-a.     * 

Caraccas Ka-rak'-kas, 

Cardiff. Kar'-dif.       , 

Cardigan Kar'-de-gan. 

Carlisle Kar-lile'. 

Carlscrona Karls-kro'-na 

(-kroo'-). 

Carlaruhe Karls'-roo. 

Carpathian Kar-pa'-the-an. 

Cartagena Kar-ta-ge'-na. 

Cashgar Kash'-gar  (•^ar'J. 


Cashmere Kash'-mere 

(-mere'). 

Caspian Kas'-pe-an. 

Cassiquiare Kas-se-ke-ah'-ra. 

Ca.stile Kas-teel'. 

Cattegat Kat'-te-gat. 

Caucasus Kaw'-ka-sus, 

Cawupore Kawn-pore'. 

Cayenne Ki-en'. 

Cayuga Ka-yu'-ga. 

Celebes Sel'-e-b^s. 

Cenis Sen'-is. 

Cenis  (Mont.) Mong-se-nee'. 

Cevennes.... Sa^ven'. 

Ceylon See-Ion  {-lone'). 

Chaleur Shah-loor'. 

Chamouni Shah-moo-nce'. 

Champlain .Sham-plane'. 

Chapala Sbah-pah'-lah. 

Charlotte Shar'-lot. 

Chary  txiis Ka-rib'-dis. 

Chattahooche Chat-ta-hoo'-che. 

Chelmsford Chems'-ford. 

Chelsea Chel'-se. 

Cheltenham Chel'-ten-ham. 

Cherbourg Sher'-burg. 

Chesapeake Ches'-a-peek. 

Cheviot Chiv-e-ut. 

Chicago She-kaw'-go. 

Chichester Chitch'-es-ter. 

Chili Chil'-le. 

Chiloe Che-lo-a'. 

Chimborazo Chim-bo-rah'-zo. 

Chincha Chin'-chah. 

Cholula Cho-loo'-lah. 

Christiania Kris-te-ah'-ne-a. 

Chuquisaoa Choo-ke-sah'-kah. 

Cincinnati Sin-si  n-nah'-ti. 

Coblenz Kob'-lents. 

Coburg Ko'-boorg, 

Cochin Ko'-chin. 

Cologne Ko-lone'. 

Colorado ....Kol-o-rah'-do. 

Columbia Ko-lum'-be-a. 

Comayaga Ko-mi-ab'gwah. 

Como Ko'-rao. 

Comorin Kom'-o-rin. 

Congo Kong'-go. 

Connanght Kon'-nawt. 

Connecticut Kon-net'-e-kut. 

Connemara Kon  e-mar'-ah. 

Constance Kon'-stance. 

Constantinople Kon-stan-te-no'- 

pl. 

Copenhagen Ko-pen-ha'-gen. 

Coquet Ko'-ket. 

Cordillera Kor-dil'-le-rah. 

CoriloVa Kor'-do-va. 

Corfu Kor-foo'. 

Corrientes Kor-re-en'-tes. 

Corsica Kor'-se-ka. 

Corunna Ko-run'-na. 

Costa  Rica Kos'-tah  Ree -kah. 

Coteau Ko-to'. 

Cotopaxi Ko-to-pax'-e. 

Cracow  ., Kra'-ko. 

Cremona Kre-mo'-na. 

Crete Kreet. 

Crimea Krim-e'-a. 

Cromarty Krom'-ar-te. 

Cronstadt Kron'-stat. 

Culloden Kul-lo'-den. 

Curacoa Ku-ra-so'. 

Cutch Kutch. 

Cuzco Kooz'-ko. 

Cyprus Si'-prus. 

Dakota Da-ko'-tah, 

Dahomey Dah-ho'-ma. 

Dalhousie Dal  hoo'-ze. 

Damascus .Da-ma.s'-kus. 

Damielta Dam  e-et'-ta. 

Dantzic Dant'-sik. 

Danube Dan'-ube. 

Dardanelles Dar-da-nels'. 

Darfur Dar-foor*. 

Darien Da'  re-en. 

Deccan Dek'-kan. 

Delaware Del'-a-ware. 

Delhi Dei'-le. 

Dembea, Dcm'-be-a. 

Demerara Dem-e-rah'-rah. 

Denmark Den'-mark. 

Derby Dnr'-be(Dar'-be). 

Derwent Der'-went. 

Desaguadero Des-a-gwah-da'-ro 

Despoblados Dcs-po-blah'-do. 

Des  Moines De-moin'. 

Detroit De-troit'. 

Dieppe De-ep'. 

Dnieper Neeir-er. 

Dniester Nees'-ter. 

Dominica. Dom-e-nee'-kah. 

Dongola Dong'-go-la. 

Douro Doo'-ro. 

Dovrefield Dov-re-fe-eld'. 

Drakenberg Drah'-ken-berg. 

Drave Drave  (Drahv). 

Dresden Drez'den. 

Drogheda Drog'-e-da  (Droh'- 

he-da). 

Drontheim Dront'-im. 

Dubuque. Du-book'. 

Dumfries. Dum-frees'. 

Dunedin Dun-ed'-in. 

Dunfermline Dun-furm'-Hn 

(-fur'-J. 
Dunkirk Dun-kirk'  (Dun'-). 

133 


Durham Dur'-am. 

Dusseldorf Dus'-sel-dorf. 

Dwina. Dwi'-nah, 

Ebro E'-bro. 

Ecbatana Ek-bat'-a-nah. 

Ecuador Ek-wah-dore'. 

Edinburgh Ed'-in-bur-ruh 

(-burg). 

Egypt E'-jipt. 

Eurenbreitstein..,.A-ren-brite'-8tine. 

Elba El'-ba. 

Elbe Elb. 

Elburz El'-ljoorz. 

Elepbanta El'-e-fan'-tah 

Elgin EI'  gin. 

El  Paso El  pah'-so. 

Ems Ems. 

England Ing'-gland. 

Enniskillen En-uis-kil'-len. 

Erie E'-re, 

Erin E'-rin. 

Erzeroum Ur'-ze-room  (Urz- 

room'). 

Erz-gebirge Ert.s-ga-becr'-ga. 

Essiquibo Es-se-ke'-bo. 

Etna Et'-na. 

Euphrates U-fra'-tez. 

Everest Ev'-e-rest, 

Exeter. Ex'-e-tcr. 

Falmouth Fal'-mouth. 

Faroe Fah'-ro  (Fa-). 

Fayetteville Fa'-et-vil. 

Fiji Fee'-jee. 

Fernando  Po Fer-nan'-do-po. 

Ferrara Fer-rah'-rah. 

Fezzan Fez-zahn'. 

Finisterre Fin-is-tair'. 

J'"i!iland Fin'-Iand. 

Fxnster-Aar-IIorn  F 1  n'-s  t  e  r-a  h  r'- 

horn. 
Flamborough  ......Flam'bur-ro. 

Florence Flor'-ence. 

Florida Flor'-e-dah. 

Fontainebleau Fon-tane-blo'. 

Foo-chow-foo Foo-chow-foo'. 

Formosa For-mo'-sa. 

Fremont Fre'-mont. 

Fribourg Fri'-burg. 

Frio Free'-o. 

Funchal Foon-shal'. 

Fundy Fun'-de. 

Funen Foo'-nen. 

Galapagos Gal-a-pa'-gus. 

Galena Ga-le'-na. 

Galicia Gah-lee'-she-a. 

Gallas Gal'-laz. 

Gallinas Gal-lee'-nas. 

Gallipoli Gal-lip'-o-le. 

Galway Gawl'-wa 

Gambia Gam'-be-ah. 

Ganges Gan'-jeez. 

Garonne Gah-ron'. 

Geneva Je-nee'-va. 

Genoa Jen'-o-a. 

Georgia Jor'-je-a. 

Ghauts Gawts. 

Ghent Gent. 

Ghizeh Gee'-zeh. 

Gibraltar Jib-rawl'  tar. 

Gihon Je-hon'. 

Girgeh Jeer'-jeh. 

Glasgow Glas'-go. 

Gloucester Glos'-ter. 

Goa Go'-ah. 

Gobi Go'-l>ee. 

Golconda Gol-kon'-dah. 

Gondar Gon'-dar. 

Gottenburg Got'-en-burg. 

Gottingen Got'-ting-eu. 

Grampians Gram'-pe-ans, 

Granada Grah-nah'-dah. 

Grand  Chaco Grahn  chah'-ko. 

Grand  Manan Grand-nia-uan'. 

Grand  Pre Grang-pra'. 

Gratz Grets. 

Greenock  Gree'-nok, 

Greenwich Green'-idj. 

Grison Gre-zon'  (zone'). 

Guadalaxara Gwah-da-lax  ah'- 

rah. 
Guadalquivir  Gwah-dal-ke- 

veer'. 

Guadeloupe Gaw-de-loop'. 

Guanaxuato Gwah-na-hwah'- 

to. 

Guardafui. Gwar-daf-wee'. 

Guatemala Gaw-te-mah'-lah, 

Guaviarc Gwah-ve-ah'-ra. 

Guayaquil Gwi-a-keel', 

Guernsey Gurn'-ze. 

Guiana Ge-ah'-nah. 

Guinea Gin'-e. 

Haarlem Hahr'-Iem. 

Hague Haig. 

Hainan. Hi-nan'. 

Halle Hahl'-le. 

Hamadan Ilah-mah-dahn. 

Ilamburg Ham'-burg. 

Hammerfest Ham'-mer-fest. 

Hampshire Hamp'-shecr. 

Hang-chow-foo....nahng-chou-foo'. 

Hartz Harts. 

Hatteras Hat'-te-ras. 

Hawaii Hah-wi'-e. 


Hayti Ha'-te. 

Hebrides Heb'-ri-deez. 

Heidelberg Hi'-del-burg. 

Heligoland Hel'-e-go-Iand. 

Heshugfors Hel'-sing-fors. 

Henlopen  Hen-lo'-r»en. 

Herat Her-aht'. 

Herculaneum Her-ku  la'-no-um. 

Hereford Her'-e-ford. 

Hertford Har'-ford. 

Hesse-Ca,s8<d Hess-kas'-sel. 

Hesse-Da rmstadt.-Hess-darm' Stat. 

Himalaya ....Him-a-li-a  (-la'- 

vah'). 

Hindoo  Koosh Hin'-doo-koosh. 

Hindustan Hiu-<lus-tan'. 

Hispaniola Hispan-e-o'-la. 

Iloang  Ho Ho-ang'-ho. 

Hohenlinden Ho-en-lin'-deu. 

Holstein Hol'-stine. 

Holyhead Hol'-e-hed. 

Honduras Hon-doo'-ras. 

Honolulu HoD-o-loo'-loo. 

Hoogly Hoog'  le. 

Hungary Hung'-ga-re. 

Uurdwar Hurd-war'. 

Iberville I'-ber-vil. 

Idaho I'-da-ho. 

Idumea Id-oo-me'-ah. 

Illinois Il-le-noi.s'  (-noi'). 

Ina^ua E-nah'-gwah. 

India In'-de-a  Me-}. 

Indies In'-decz  (-jiz'). 

Indus In'-dus. 

Innspruck Ins'-prook. 

Inverary In-ve-ra'-re. 

Inverness In-ver-uess'. 

lona I'>o'-na. 

Ionian I-o'-no-an. 

Iowa I'-o-wa. 

Ipswich Ips'-wich. 

Iran E-rahn'. 

Irkutsk Ir-kootsk. 

Irrawaddy Ir-ra-wod'-de. 

Irtish Ir'-tish. 

Ispahan Is-pa-hahn'. 

Italy It'-a-le. 

Itasca I-tas'-ka. 

Iztaccihuatl Ees-tak-se-hwatl', 

Jaffa... Jaf'-fah  fi'af- 

fah). 

Jamaica Ja-ma'-ka. 

Japan ; Ja-pan'. 

Java Jah'-va. 

Jaxartes Jax  ar'-teez, 

Jelalabad Je-lah-lah-bahd'. 

Jersey Jur'-ze.  , 

Jerusalem Jer-oo'-sa-lcm. 

Joannes Jo-an'-nees, 

Joliet ...Jol-le-et'. 

JoruUo Ho-rool'-vo. 

Juan  de  Fuca Ju'-ahn-«e-foo'- 

kah. 
Juan  Femandes...Ju'-ahn-fer-nan'- 

dez. 

Judea Ju-dee'-a. 

Juggernaut Jug'-gur-nawt. 

Jungfrau Yoong'-frow. 

Jura Joo'-ra. 

Jutland Jut'-land. 

Kaffraria Kaf'-ra-re-ah. 

Kalahari Kah-lah-hah'-re. 

Kamtchatka Kahmt-chat'-kah. 

Kanawa Ka-naw'-wa. 

Kangaroo  Kang-ga-roo'. 

Kankakee Kank-a-kee'. 

Kara Kah'-rah, 

Karakorum Kah-rah-ko'-rum. 

Kelat Ke-lat'. 

Kenia Ke'-ne-ah. 

Kennel>ec Ken-ne  bek'. 

Khartoum Kar-toom'. 

Khiva Kee'-vah. 

Khyber Ki'-ber, 

Kiel Keel. 

Kiev Ke-ev'. 

Kilimandjaro Kil-e-nian-jah-rr. 

Killkenny JCil-ken'-ne. 

Killarney Kil-lar'-ne. 

Kilmarnock Kil-mar'-nok. 

Kiolen ....Ky'-o-len. 

Kirghiz Kur-geez'. 

Kiusiu Ke-oo'-seoo'. 

Konigsburg Ken'-igs-burg. 

Kordofan Kor  do-fan'. 

Kosciusko Kos-se-us'-ko. 

Kremnitz Krein'-nitz. 

Krishna Krish'-na. 

Kucnlun Kwen-Ioon'. 

Kurdistan Koor-dis-tau'. 

Kurile Koo'-ril. 

Laaland —Law'-land. 

Labrador Lalvra-dore.' 

Laccadive Lak'-kadiv^ 

Ladrones Lab-drones'. 

Lahore Lah-hon/. 

Lanark Lan'-ark. 

Lancashire Lank'-as-sheer, 

Lancaster Lank'-a»-ter. 

Laos Lah'-os. 

La  Paz Lah-path' (-pas). 

La  Plata Lah-plah'-tah. 

LaPuebla Lah-pweb'-lah. 

La  Rochello Lah-ro-shel'. 


134 


PEONOUNCING  VOCABULARY. 


Lassa Las'-sa. 

L'Assomption Las-eooK-se-ong', 

Lauenburg Lou'-en-burg. 

Lausanne Lo-zahn'. 

Leghorn Leg'-horn. 

Leipsic Lipe'-sik. 

Leitb Lc«th. 

Leitrim Lee'-irim, 

Lena » Le'-na. 

lAegfi Led. 

Lille Leel. 

Lima Le'-mah  (Li'-). 

Limoges Lee-mozb'. 

Lincoln Link'-uu. 

Lipari Lip-a-re  (Le-pah'- 

re). 

Loango Lo-ang'-go. 

Loire Lwor. 

Lombardy Ix>m'-bar-de. 

Lomond Lo'-mond. 

Loo  Choo Loo-choo'. 

Lotbiau Lo'-lbe-an. 

Louisiana Ix>o-eze-ah'-na. 

Lubeck Lu'-bek  (-bek'). 

Lucca Luk'-kan. 

Lucerne 1  r^o-aern' 

Luzern ji^o-sern. 

Lucknow Luk'-DOW. 

Lupata Loo-pah'-tah. 

Luxembourg Lux'-em-burg. 

Lyons Li'-onz. 

Macao Mah  kow'. 

Kacassar. Mah-kas'-«ar. 

Madagascar Mad-a-gas'-kar. 

Madawaska Mad-a-wos'-ka. 

Madeira Ma-dee-ra. 

Madras Ma-dras'. 

Madrid Mah-drid'  (Mad- 
rid). 

Maelstrom Malo'-strum. 

Magdalena Mag-da-le-na. 

Magdeburg Maj^'-de-burg. 

Magellan Ma-jeK-lan. 

Maggiore Mah-jo'-ra. 

Majorca. Ma-ior'-ka. 

Malabar Ma-la-bar.' 

Malacca. Ma-lak'-ka. 

Malaga Mal'-a-ga, 

Malar Ma'-lar. 

Malaysia Ma-Ia'-she-a. 

Maldive Mal'-dive. 

Malta Mawl'-ta, 

Manaar Mah-nahr'. 

Manchooria Man-choo'-re-a, 

Manhattan Man-hatMau. 

Manilla Ma-nil'-la. 

Manitoulin Man-e-tooMin. 

Mantua Man'-tu-a. 

Maraeaybo Mar-a-ki'-bo. 

Marmora Mar'-mo-ra. 

Marocco Ma-rok'-ko. 

Marquesas Mar-ka'-sas. 

Marseilles Mar-salz'. 

Martinique Mar-te-neek'. 

Massachusetts Mos-sa-choo'-sets, 

Matamoras Mat-a-mo'-ras, 

Matanzas Ma-tan'-zas. 

Matapan Mat-a-pan', 

Mauritius  Maw-rish'-e-us. 

Mazatlan Maz-at^lan'. 

Mecca Mek'-ka. 

Mechlin Mek'-lin. 

Mecklenburg )     f  Mek'-len-burg- 
Schwerin     J    1     shwa-reen'. 

Mecklenburg  1    J  Mek -len-burg- 
Strelitz.      |     (       strel'-itz. 

Medina Me-tii-na. 

Mediterranean Med-e-ter-ra'-ne- 

an. 

Mekong Ma-kong'. 

Melbourne Mel'-burn. 

Memphremagog....Mem-fre-raa'-gog. 

Menai Men'-a  (-i). 

Menam Ma-nani'. 

Mendocino Men-do-se'-no, 

Mendoza Men-do'-za. 

Mer  de  Glace Mair-de-glaa'. 

Merida Mer'-e-da. 

Merrimac Mer'-re-mak. 

Mersey Mur'-ze. 

Merthyr  Tydvil...Mur'-thur-tid'- 
vil. 

Messina Mcs-see'-nah. 

Metz Mets. 

Meuse Muze. 

Mexico Mex'-e-ko. 

Miaco Me-ah'-ko. 

Michigan Mish'-e-gan. 

Milan Mil'-an  (Mi-lanO. 

Milwaukee Mtl-waw-ke. 

Minnesota Min-ne-so'-ta. 

Minorca Min-or'-ka. 

Miquelon Mik-o-lon'. 

Miramichi Mir-a-mi  shee'. 

Mississippi Mis-sls-sip'-pe. 

Mi-ssouri Mis-80o'-re. 

Mobile Mo-beel'. 

Mocha Mo'-ka. 

Moluccas Mo-luk'-kaz. 

Monongahela Mo-non-ga-he'-la. 

Montague Mon'-ta-gu. 

Montana „ Mon-tah-na, 

Montawk _..JJon-tawk'. 


Montevideo Mon'-te-vid-e-o. 

Montmorency Mont-mo-ren'-se. 

Mout|)elier Mont-pu'-li-er, 

Montreal Mon-tre-all'. 

Morocco Mo-rok'-ko. 

Moscow Mos'-ko. 

Mozambique Mo-zam-beck'. 

Munich Mu'-nik. 

Muscat Mus-kat'. 

Mysore Mi-sore'. 

Nagpore Nag-pore'. 

Naniaqua Nan  mah'-kwah. 

Nankin Nan-ktien'. 

Nanlmg Nan-ling'. 

Nantes Nanls. 

Nantucket Nan-tiik'-et. 

Nassau Nas'-saw. 

Natal Nab-lahl'. 

Natchez Natch'-ez. 

Navarino Nah-vah-ree'-no. 

Naze Nah'-ze. 

Nebraska Ne-bras'-ka. 

Negropont N(^'-ro-pont. 

Nepaul Ne-pawl'. 

Nerbuddah Nur-bud'-da. 

Neufcbatel Nuf-shah-tel'. 

Neva Ne'-va  (Na-vah'). 

Nevada Na-vah'-dah. 

Nevada-de-Sorata.Na  -  vah'-  dah  -da- 

so  rah'-ta. 

Newfoundland Nu-fund-laud'. 

New  Orleans Nu-or'-le-anz. 

New  Zealaud Nu-zee'-land. 

N^ami N'gah'-mue, 

Niagara Ni-ag'-a-ra. 

Nicaragua Nik-ah-rah'-gwah 

Nice Neece. 

Niger Ni'-ier. 

Nijni-Novgorod  ...Nizh'-ne-nov  -go  - 

rod . 

Nikolaiev Ne-ko-U-ev', 

Nile Nile. 

Ning-po Ning-po'. 

Niphon Ni'-fon  (Nif-on'). 

Nipissing Nip'-is-sing. 

Norwich Nor-ridj. 

Notre  Dame Nol'r-duhm'. 

Nova  Zembla No-vah-zem'-bla. 

Nubia Nu'-be-a. 

Nyanza Ne-ahn'-za. 

Nyassi Ne-as'-se, 

Oahu Wah'-hoo. 

Obi O'-be. 

Oceania O-she-a'-ne-a. 

Oder C-der. 

Odessa O-des'-sa. 

Oesel U'-sel. 

Okeechobee O-ke-cho'-be. 

Okhotsk O-kotsk'. 

Oldenburg Ol'-den-hurg. 

Olyntpus 0  lim'-pus. 

Omaha O'-nia-haw. 

Onega O-ne'-ga. 

Ontario On-ta'-re-o, 

Oporto O-pore'-to. 

Oregon Or'-e  gon. 

Orinoco O-rc-no'-ko. 

Orizaba Or-e-zah'-bah. 

Orkneys Ork'-nees 

Orleans Or'-le-anz. 

Ormuz Or -muz. 

Ortegal Or'  te-cal. 

Ostend Os-tend'. 

Otranto O-tran'-to. 

Ottawa Ot-ta^waw. 

Ouse Ooz, 

Owhyhee O-why'-hee. 

Oxus Ox'-ui. 

Pacific Pa-«if'-ik. 

Padua Pad'-u-a. 

Paisley Paze'-le. 

Palermo Pa-ler'-rao. 

Palestine Pal'-es-tine. 

Palma Pahl'-niah. 

Palmyra Pal-mi'-ra. 

Palos Pah'-los. 

Pamir Pah-meer'. 

Pamlico Pam'-le-ko. 

Panama Pan-a-raah'. 

Papua Pap'-oo-a. 

Para Pah-rah'. 

Paraguay Par'-ah^wa. 

Paramaribo Par-a-mar'-i-bo 

(Pa-ra-ma-rc'-bo). 

Parana Par-ah-nah' 

Paria Pah'-re-ah. 

Parime Pah-ree'-ma. 

Paris Par'-is  (Pah-re'). 

Passamaquoddy....Pas-8am-a-quod'- 
dy. 

Patagonia Pat-a-go'-ne-a. 

Pedee Pe-dee'. 

Pekin Pee'-kin(Pe-kin'). 

Peling Pa-ling'. 

Pembina Pem'-be-na. 

Pembroke Pem'-hrook. 

Penang Pe-nang'. 

Pennsylvania Pen-sil-va'-ne-a. 

Penobscot Po-nob'-skot. 

Pensaooliu Pen-s»-ko'-ia. 


Penzance Pen-zance'. 

Peruambuco Per-nam-boo'-ko. 

Persepolis ^.Per-sep'-o-lis. 

Peru Pe-rocr. 

Perugia Pa-roo'-jah. 

Peshawar Pesh-ah'-wur, 

Pesih Pest. 

Pctchora Petch'-o-ra, 

Peterlx^rough  ...... Pe'-ter-bu r-ra. 

Philadelphia Fil-a-del'-fc-a. 

Philippine Fil'-ip-pin. 

Pichinca Ptxhin'-kah. 

Pictou  Pik'-too  (-tooO. 

Piedmont Peed'-mont. 

Pilcomayo Pil-ko-mah'-yo 

(-mi-o). 

Pindus Pin'-dus. 

Pisa Pee'-zah. 

Pitcaim Pit-cairn'. 

Plymouth Plim'-utb. 

Po Po. 

Poland Po'-land. 

Polynesia Pol'-e-nec'-she-a. 

Pompeii Pom-pa'-yee 

(Pom-pe'-e-i). 

Pondichcrry Pon-de-sher'-rc. 

Popocat  a|KJtI Po-po-cat-a-petl'. 

Porto  Hieo Por-to-ree'-ko. 

Portsmouth  Port^'-mouth. 

Portugal Port'-u-gal. 

Posen Po'-zen. 

Potomac Po-to'-mak. 

Polosi Po-to-se'  (Po-to'- 

se). 

Prague Prag  (Prage). 

Prussia Prush'-y  a 

(Proosh'-a). 

Punjaub Pun-jabb'. 

Puntaa  Arenas Poon'- tas  - ah-ra'- 

nas. 

Punas Poon'-yas. 

I'utumayo Poo-too-mi'-o. 

Pyrenees Pir'-e-neez. 

Quathlaniba Kwat-lara'-bah. 

Quebec Kwe  bek'. 

Quesaltenaitgo Ka-sal-ta-nan'-go. 

Quito Kee-to. 

Pacine Ras-seen'. 

Raleigh Raw'-le. 

Rangoon Eang-goon'. 

Rappahannock Rap-pa-han'-nok. 

Ratislwn Rat'-is-bon. 

Ravenna Ra-ven'-na. 

Reading Red'-ding. 

Reikiavik Ri'-ki-a-vik. 

Restigouche Res-te-goosh'. 

Rheims Keems. 

Rhine Rine. 

Rhodes  Rodz. 

Rhone Rone. 

Richelieu Reesh-e-loo'. 

Rideau Re-do'. 

Riesengebirge Ree-zen-ga-beer'- 

ga. 

Riga Ree'-gah  (Ri'-). 

Rio  Grande Ri-o-grand. 

Rio  .Janeiro Ri-o-ja-nc-ro. 

Rio  Negro Ki'-o-na'-gro. 

Roanoke Ro-an-oke'. 

Rosetta Ro-zet'-ta. 

Rothesay Roth'-sa. 

Rotterdam Rot'-ter-dam. 

Rouen Roo'-en. 

Russia Rush'-e-a 

(Roosh'-e-ah). 

Sacramento 8ae-ra-men'-to. 

Saghalicn Sag-bal'-i-an. 

Saeuenay Sag-e-na'. 

Sahara Sah-hah'-rah. 

Saida Si'-dah. 

Saigon Si-gon'. 

St.  Albans Saint^awl'-bans. 

St.  Anselme Sahnt-ang-selm'. 

St.  Bernard Seut-ber-nard', 

St.  Croix JSaint-kroi'. 

St.  Etienne Sahnt-a-te-en'. 

St.  Gothard Sahnt-got'-hard. 

St.  Helena Saint-he-le'-na. 

St.  Lawrence Saint-law'-rence. 

St.  Louis Saint-loo'-is. 

St.  Lucas Rahnt^loo'-kas. 

St.  Malo Sent-mab'-lo. 

St.  Marie Sahnt-ma-ree'. 

St.  Petersburg Saint-pee'-ters- 

burg. 

St.  Pierre Sahnt-pe-air'. 

St.  Roque Saint-roke'. 

Salado Sah-lah'-do. 

Salamanca Sal-a-man'-ca. 

Salzburp Salts'-burg. 

San  Antonio San-an-to'-ni-o. 

San  Bias Sahn-blahs'. 

San  Domingo. Sahndo-ming'-go. 

San  Francisco San-fran-cis-co. 

San  Joaquin Sahn-ho-ah-keen'. 

San  Jose Sahn-ho-sa'. 

San  Juan Sahu-hoo-ahn'. 

San  Luis Sahn-Ioo'-is. 

San  Marino Sahnraah-ree'-no. 

San  Salvador Sahn-sal-va-dore', 

Santa  Fe. « ^ahu'-tah-fa'. 


Santee San-tee'. 

Saoue Sone. 

Saragossa Sar-ra-gos'-fia. 

Sardinia Sar-din'-e-a. 

Saskatchewan Saa-katch'-e-wan. 

Sault Soo. 

Savannah Sah-van'-na. 

Save Sahv  (Save). 

SaxeCoburg Sax-ko'-burg. 

Saxony Sax'-o-ne. 

Scandinavia Skan-de-na-ve-a. 

Scatari Skat-a-ree'. 

iS^r^-::::::;::}sow-'-.ig. 

Schwarlzwald Shwarts'-wahld. 

Scilly Sil'-le. 

Scotland Skot'-land. 

Scutari Skoo'-tah-re. 

Sevastopol ...Se-vas'-to-pol. 

Seeland Zee'land. 

Segovia Se-go'-ve-a. 

Seine Sane. 

Senegal Sen-e-gawl'. 

Senegambia Sen-e-gam'-be-a. 

Sennaar Sen-nahr'. 

Servia Ser'-ve-a. 

Seville Sev'-il  (-illO. 

Sevres Sev'r. 

Seychelles Sa-sheelz'. 

Shanghai Shang  hi'. 

Shenandoah Shen-an-do'-a. 

Shropshire Shrop'-sheer. 

Siam Si-am'. 

Siberia Si-bee'- re-a. 

Sicily Sis'-e-le. 

Sierra-del-Cobre....Se-er'-rah  -  del- 
cob' r'. 

Sierra-Gredos Se-er'-rah-gra'- 

dos. 

Sierra  Leone Se-er'-rah  le-o'-ne. 

Sierra  Madre Se-er'-rab-mah'- 

dra. 

Sierra  Morena Se-er'-rah -mo-ra'- 

nah. 

Sierra  Nevada Se^r  -rah-na-vah'- 

dah. 

Sierra  Toledo Se-er'-rah-to-la'- 

do. 

Silesia Si-lee'-she  a. 

Sinai. Si'-na  (Si'-na-i). 

Singapore. Sing-ga-pore'. 

Siout Se-oot'. 

Sitka Sit'-ka. 

Skager  Rack Skag'-er-rak. 

Skye Ski. 

Smyrna Smir'-na. 

Socotra Sok'-o-ira  (-ko'-). 

Sofala So-fah'-lah. 

Solferino Sol-fa-re'-no. 

Somali So-maw'-le. 

Soodan Soo-dahn'. 

Soongaria Soong-gah'-re-ah. 

Sorel Sor'-el. 

Spitzbergen Spits-burg'-en. 

Stanovoi Stah-no-voi'. 

Stettin Stet-teen 

Stockholm St  ok'  holm. 

Strasbourg Stras'-burg(-boorO 

Strom  boli Strom'-bo-lee. 

Stuttgart Stut'-gart. 

Suez Soo'-ez. 

Suffolk Suf-fok. 

Sumatra Soo-mah'-tra. 

Sumbawa Soom-baw'-wah. 

Sunda Sun'-da. 

Surat Soo-rat'. 

Susquehanna Sus-kwe-han'-na. 

Sutlej Sut'-lej. 

Swansea .....Swon'-se. 

Sweden Swe'-den. 

Switzerland Swits'-er^land. 

Syracuse Sir'-a-kuse. 

Tabriz Tah-breez'. 

Tadoussac Tadoo-sak'. 

Tagus Ta'-gus. 

Tahiti Tah-hee'-te. 

Tahlequah Tab'-Ie-kwah. 

Tallabasse Tal-iah-has'-se. 

Tampico Tam-pee-ko. 

Tanganyika Tahn-gahn-ye'-ka 

Tangier Tan-jeer'. 

Tapajos Tab-pah '-zhose. 

Tarlary Tar'-ta-re. 

Tashkend Tash-kend'. 

Tasmania  Tas-ma'-ne-a. 

Taunton Tahn'-ton. 

Taurus Tau'-rus. 

Tchad Chad. 

Teheran Te-her-an. 

Tehnantepec Ta-hwan-ta-pek'. 

Teneriffe Ten-er-ifT. 

Tennessee Ten-nes-see'. 

Terra  del  Fuego...Ter'-rah-del-fwa'- 
go. 

Terre  Haute Ter'-reh-hote'. 

Thames Temz. 

Thebes Theebz. 

Thian  Shan Tc-ahn'-shahn. 

Thibet Tib'-et  (-ef). 

Thuringian Thu-riu'-je-an. 

Tiber Ti'-bur. 

Tiflis Tif-lis. 

Tigre Tee'-gra. 


Tigris n'-gris. 

Timbuctoo Tim-buk'-too. 

Tipperary Tip-er-a'-re. 

Titicaca TitKvkah'-kah. 

Tobago To-ba'-go. 

Tobolsk To-lxdsk'. 

Tocantins To-kan-teens'. 

Tonquin Ton-keen'. 

ToiK-ka To-iM^-ka. 

Toplitz Tep'-litz. 

Tornca  Tor'-no-a. 

Torquay Tor-ke' (Tor'-). 

Torres Tor'-res. 

Tortugas Tor-too'-gas. 

Toulon Too-long\ 

Toulouse Too-looz'. 

Tours Toor  (Toorz). 

Trafalgar Traf-al-gar't-fal'-). 

Transvaal Trans-vahl'. 

Trebisond T  re  b'  -  e  -  z  o  n  d 

(-zond'). 

Treves Treevs. 

Trieste Tnx'st'. 

Tritjoli Trip'-o-le. 

Truxillo Troo-heel'-yo. 

Tunis Too'-nis. 

Turin Too'-rin. 

Turkestan Toor-kes-tahn'. 

Turkey Tur'-ke. 

Tuscaloosa Tus-kah-loo'-Ba. 

Tuscany Tus'-ka-ne. 

Tyrone Ti-rone'. 

Ulm Ulm  (Oolra). 

Upsala tlp-sah'-lah. 

Ural U'-ral  (Oo-rahO. 

Uruguay Oo-  roo  -  gwa' 

(-gwi'.) 

Ushant Ush^-aut. 

Utah U'-tah. 

Utica U'-te-ka. 

Utrecht U'-trekt. 

Valdai .Val'-da  (-di). 

^UleS  ■■::;::;;:  h-wen'.he-a. 

Valenciennes Vah-long-se-en' 

Valladolid Val-Ia-do-lid' 

(-lee<l'J. 

Valparaiso Vahl-pah-ri'-so. 

Vancouver Van-koo'-ver. 

Van  Diemen's Van-dee'-mcnz. 

Venezuela Ven-e-zwe'-la. 

Venice Ven'-iss. 

Vera  Cruz Va'-rah-croos. 

Verde  Verd. 

Vermejo Ver-nia-ho. 

Versailles Ver-salz'. 

Vesuvius Ve-su'-ve-us. 

Vienna Ve-cn'-na. 

Vindhya Vind'-yah. 

Virginia Vir-gin'-e-a. 

Vistula Vis'-tu-la. 

Volga Vol'-ga. 

Vosges Vozh. 

Wadai Wah'-di. 

Wady  Mousa Wah'-de-moo'-«a. 

Wahsatch Wah-satch'. 

Wallachia Wol-la'-ke-a. 

Warsaw War'-saw. 

Washita Woslie-taw'. 

Waterloo Wa  Icr-loo'. 

Wellesley Wels'-le. 

Wener We'-ner  (Va'-ner), 

Weser We'-ser  (Va'-scr). 

Weymouth Wa'-nuith. 

Wiesbaden Wees'-bali-dcn. 

Wight Wife. 

Winnipeg Win'-ni-peg. 

Winnipiseogee Win-e  pe-saw'-ke. 

(Win-e  pis-e-o'- 
BC).       ,    _ 

Wisconsin Wis-kon'-sin. 

Wittenburg Wit'-ten-burg. 

Wollaston Wol'-Ias-ton. 

Woolwich Wool'-itch. 

Worcester Woos'-ter. 

Wrexhaui Rex'-ani. 

Wurtemburg Wur'-tem-burg. 

Xingu Shin-goo'. 

Yablonoi Yah-blo-noi'. 

yang-tse-kiang...,Yang-tBe-ke-ang'. 
Yapura(Japura)...Yah-]x>o'-rah. 

Yeddo  (Jeddo) Yed'-do. 

Yemen Yem'-cn. 

Yenisei.....' Yen-e  sa'-e. 

Yesso Yes'-«o. 

Yoniba Yo-roo'-bah. 

Yosemit* Yo-.sem'-e  te. 

Yucatan Yoo-ka-tan'. 

Yukon Yu'-kon. 

Zacatecas Zahk-a-ta-kas. 

Zaire Zah-eer'. 

Zambesi Zani-ba'-ze. 

Zanguebar Zan-gwe-bai' 

(-ga-)-      , 

Zanzibar Zan-ze-bar. 

Zealand... Zee'-land. 

Zurich Zoo'-rik. 

Zuyder  Zee Zi'-der-zee. 


^■v 


KEW  CAPITOL,  INDIANAPOLIS. 


INDIANA. 


DESCRIPTION. 


Situation  and  Extent. — 1.  The  state  of  Indiana  occupies 
the  north  central  part  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  Mississippi 
Basin,  and  a  strip  of  the  southern  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Great 
Lakes.  Its  greatest  extent  is  from  latitude  37°  47'  N.  to  41°  46'  N. , 
or  276  miles.  Its  greatest  breadth  is  from  longitude  84°  49'  W. 
to  88°  2'  W.,  or  177  miles.  Its  average  length  is  about  250  miles 
and  its  average  breadth  about  145  miles.  Its  area  is  35,910 
square  miles,  or  22,982,400  acres. 

2.  Indiana  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Michigan,  on  the 
east  by  Ohio,  on  the  south  by  Kentucky,  and  on  the  west  by 
Illinois.  Its  only  natural  boundaries  are  Lake  Michigan  at  the 
northwest,  the  Ohio  Eiver  on  the  south,  and  the  Wabash  Eiver 
on  the  west,  below  longitude  39°  20'  N. 

Topography  and  Drainage. — ^1.  The  surface  of  Indiana  is 
level,  the  difference  between  the  altitudes  of  the  highest  and 
lowest  points  being  less  than  1,000  feet.  The  northwestern  por- 
tion is  very  flat;  the  central  slightly  rolling;  and  the  southern  is 
somewhat  hilly,  which  is  due  chiefly  to  the  deep  channels  cut  by 
streams.     There  are  no  mountains. 

2.  There  are  five  principal  drainage  systems,  viz. :  the  Ohio 
(including  the  Whitewater),  the  Wabash,  the  Maumee,  the  Kan- 
kakee, and  Lake  Michigan.  These  are  separated  by  low  water- 
sheds, all  of  which,  directly  or  indirectly,  come  together  in  a 
table-land,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state.  Nearly  all  of  the 
more  important  streams  of  the  state  head  in  this  table-land, 
which  has  an  average  elevation  of  1,150  feet  above  the  sea  level. 
Its  highest  point  is  in  Eandolph  County,  and  is  estimated  to  be 
1,285  feet  above  the  sea  level;  the  highest  point  in  Indiana. 

3.  The  extreme  southern  and  southeastern  parts  of  the  state 
are  drained  by  the  Ohio  and  its  tributaries,  all  of  which,  except 
the  Whitewater,  which  unites  with  the  Big  Miami  before  reach- 
ing the  Ohio,  are  unimportant  streams.  The  low-water  level 
of  the  Ohio  at  the  southeastern  corner  of  the  state  is  436  feet 
above  sea  level.     At  the  southwestern  corner,  the  mouth  of  the 


Wabash,  it  is  313  feet.     Of  this  descent  27  feet  is  made  at  the 
falls  at  Louisville,  in  the  distance  of  two  and  a  half  miles. 

4.  The  whole  central  part  of  the  state  (about  four-fifths  of 
its  entire  area)  is  drained  by  the  Wabash  and  its  tributaries, 
the  most  important  of  which  are  White  Eiver,  Wild  Cat  Creek, 
Tippecanoe  Eiver,  Eel  Eiver,  Salamonie  and  Mississinewa  rivers. 

5.  The  northeastern  corner  of  the  state  is  drained  by  the 
St.  Joseph's  and  St.  Mary's  rivers,  which  unite  at  Port  Wayne 
and  form  the  Maumee.  The  Maumee  flows  into  Lake  Erie  at 
Toledo,  Ohio,  at  an  altitude  of  573  feet  above  sea  level. 

6.  The  extreme  northern  part  of  the  state  is  drained  by  the 
St.  Joseph's,  the  Calumet,  and  several  smaller  streams,  to  Lake 
Michigan,  whose  altitude  above  sea  level  is  585  feet. 

7.  The  remainder  of  the  northwest  corner  of  the  state  is 
drained  by  the  Kankakee  and  its  tributaries  to  the  Mississippi. 

Lakes. — 1.  Indiana  has  about  45  miles  of  coast  line  on  Lake 
Michigan,  and  a  fine  harbor  at  Michigan  City. 

2.  There  are  many  beautiful  lakes  in  the  state,  especially  in 
the  northern  part.  These  are  all  small  and  of  no  value  to  com- 
merce, but  owing  to  their  beauty  and  the  healthfulness  of  the 
country  about  them,  many  of  them  have  become  popular  resorts. 
They  have  sandy  beds  and  are  well  stocked  with  the  finest  kinds 
of  fish. 

Climate. — 1.  The  climate  of  Indiana  is  pleasant  and  health- 
ful. The  temperature  ranges  from  an  average  of  31°  Fahrenheit 
in  the  winter  to  an  average  of  76°  in  the  summer.  The  mean 
temperature  is  53°.  The  average  annual  rain-fall  is  42  inches, 
and  is  somewhat  greater  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state  than 
in  the  northern. 

2.  For  many  years  artificial  drainage  has  been  encouraged 
by  law  in  Indiana,  and,  by  ditching  and  tiling,  a  large  amount  of 
marshy  land  has  been  made  tillable.  On  account  of  this  drain- 
age the  healthfulness  of  the  country  has  continually  improved, 
and  malarial  diseases  have  almost  disappeared  in  sections  where 
they  were  once  prevalent. 


2 


THE  STATE  OF  INDIANA. 


A  NATURAL  GAS  WELL. 


Soil. — The  soil  of  about  four-fifths  of  Indiana  is  the  deposit 
of  vast  glaciers  during  geologic  time.  Beneath  this  is  a  surface 
of  rock,  which  crops  out  at  numerous  points  in  the  state,  but 
usually  it  is  covered  with  the  glacial  drift  to  a  depth  of  from 
25  to  400  feet.  The  surface  of  this  drift  has  been  changed  by  the 
action  of  air  and  water  and  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter into  a  fertile  and  easily  cultivated  loam,  which  is  mixed  with 
clay  or  sand  in  some  sections.     In  the  regions  which  the  glacial 

drift  did  not  reach,  chiefly 
in  the  southern  part  of  the 
state,  the  soil  is  the  product 
of  the  decomposition  of  the 
surface  rocks  and  of  vegeta- 
tion. The  alluvial  bottom- 
lands of  streams  and  the 
prairies  have  the  richest 
soils,  and  are  usually  plant- 
ed in  corn.  The  uplands 
are  better  adapted  to  wheat 
and  other  small  grains  and 
grasses. 

Natural  Wonders. — 1. 
There  are  a  number  of  caves 
in  Southern  Indiana,  formed 
by  the  action  of  water  on 
limestone.  The  largest  is  the 
Wyandotte  Cave  in  Craw- 
ford County,  which  rivals  the 
Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky 
in  its  extent,  the  size  of  its 
chambers  and  the  beauty  of  its  rock  formations. 

2.  Springs  of  mineral  water  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
state.  Many  of  these  possess  great  curative  properties,  and  are 
much  frequented  by  persons  afflicted  with  diseases.  French  Lick, 
Martinsville,  and  West  Baden  are  among  the  most  important. 

Animal  Life. — 1.  The  larger  wild  animals,  such  as  buflfalo, 
deer,  elk,  bears  and  panthers,  which  once  were  numerous,  have 
disappeared.  Minks,  weasels,  foxes,  raccoons,  opossums,  rabbits 
and  smaller  wild  animals  are  still  quite  common. 

2.  Wild  turkeys,  pheasants  and  prairie  chickens  are  found, 
but  in  small  numbers.  Hawks,  buzzards,  water-fowl  and  the 
smaller  birds  are  abundant. 

3.  The  streams  and  lakes  of  Indiana  are  well  supplied  with 
bass,  perch,  bream,  pickerel,  bufifalo-fish,  catfish,  suckers  and 
smaller  species.  Carp  and  salmon  have  been  introduced  and  are 
found  in  many  streams. 

4.  Fish  and  game  birds  are  protected  by  law  during  the 
nesting  season.  Killing  song  birds  or  disturbing  their  nests  at 
any  time  is  a  penal  offense. 

Vegetation. — 1.  There  are  extensive  prairies  in  Northwest- 
ern Indiana,  but  the  ijreater  part  of  the  surface  was  originally 
covered  by  forests.  The  hardwood  trees,  such  as  oak,  hickory, 
maple,  walnut  and  beech,  are  most  common;  but  ash,  sycamore, 
poplar,  willow  and  other  trees  are  abundant.  It  is  supposed 
that  about  one-third  of  the  forests  still  remain. 

2.  Wild  fruits  are  common  in  Indiana,  particularly  plums, 
pawpaws,  May-apples,  cherries  and  grapes.  All  the  fruits  and 
cultivated  plants  of  the  Temperate  Zone  thrive  and  are  very 
profitable. 

Mineral  Resources. — 1.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Indiana  is 
chiefly  coal,  natural  gas,  building  stone,  glass  sand,  kaolin  and 
other  clays.  Gold  and  copper  are  found  in  several  parts  in  very 
email  quantities;  they  occur  only  in  the  glacial  drift. 


2.  Indiana  is  the  sixth  state  in  the  Union  in  the  production 
of  bituminous  coal.  Anthracite  coal  is  not  found,  but  coking, 
block  and  cannel  coal  exist  in  large  quantities.  The  workable 
coal  fields  are  more  than  6,000  square  miles  in  extent,  and  extend 
over  and  into  23  counties  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  state. 
In  1880  the  number  of  persons  employed  in  coal  mining  in  the 
state  was  4,500,  and  the  product  was  1,500,000  tons.  The  annual 
capacity  of  the  mines  is  over  3,000,000  tons. 

3.  Enormous  reservoirs  of  natural  gas  have  been  opened  in 
the  past  two  years.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  this  valuable 
fuel  exists  in  large  quantities  under  a  tract  of  country  extend- 
ing north  and  south  for  165  miles  through  the  eastern  and  cen- 
tral parts  of  the  state,  and  at  several  points  in  the  west  and 
south.  Thirty-four  counties  are  known  to  be  wholly  or  partly  in 
the  gas  field,  and  it  is  probable  that  it  includes  half  the  counties 
in  the  state. 

Four  hundred  and  fifty  flowing  wells  have  been  opened  and 
the  daily  flow  of  gaa  is  now  estimated  at  900,000,000  cubic  feet; 
20,000  cubic  feet  are  estimated  to  equal  one  ton  of  coal  in  heat 
power.  The  abundance  and  cheapness  of  this  fuel  has  made  the 
gas  belt  an  unusually  fine  field  for  manufacture  and  the. manu- 
facturing interests  of  the  state  are  rapidly  increasing.  The  great 
supply  of  this  gas  is  found  in  the  rock  of  the  Trenton  period, 
but  it  exists  in  smaller  quantities  in  all  the  strata  that  show  re- 
mains of  animal  or  vegetable  life.  It  is  supposed  by  scientists 
to  be  the  product  of  decomposition  of  organic  matter.  It  has 
great  expansive  force  and  in  all  active  wells  has  a  pressure  of 
over  300  pounds  to  the  square  inch  at  the  surface. 


soldiers'  and  sailors'   monument,  INDIANAPOLIS. 

4.  The  building  stone  of  Indiana  is  its  most  important  nat- 
ural product.  The  most  valuable  varieties  are  the  oolitic  lime- 
stone, the  blue  limestone  of  the  Devonian  period,  the  gray  lime- 
stone of  the  Niagara  period,  and  the  sandstone  of  the  lower  coal 
measures.  All  of  these  are  celebrated  for  their  strength  and 
durability.  The  oolitic  (egg-stone)  limestone  is  so  called  be- 
cause it  resembles  a  mass  of  fish  eggs.    It  is  composed  of  minute 


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THE  STATE  OF  INDIAKA. 


and  to  the  breeding  of  stock.  A  state  fair  is 
held  annually,  at  which  premiums  are  given  for 
the  best  products,  and  similar  fairs  are  held  in 
the  various  counties.  The  chief  farm  products 
in  1880  were  as  follows: 


Com  ...bushels,  115,482,300 
Wheat...     "         47,284,853 

Gate "         15,ii99,518 

Potatoes      "  6,232,246 


Hay tons,  1,361,083 

Forest  product $5,554,587 

Orchard  product..  2,757,359 
Garden  product...      578,413 


FARM   bCl^>E~lIAKVL:Sll..ti    WHEAT. 


fossil  shells,  filled  and  cemented  together  by  carbonate  of  lime. 
It  is  soft  and  easily  worked  when  taken  from  the  quarries,  but 
hardens  rapidly  on  exposure  to  the  air.  The  longer  it  stands 
the  harder  it  becomes.  On  account  of  this  remarkable  dura- 
bility it  is  being  used  in  large  buildings  all  over  the  country. 
The  new  capitol  of  the  state  is  built  of  it,  and  the  magnificent 
soldiers'  and  sailors'  monument  is  being  constructed  of  it.  In 
1880  Indiana  was  the  fifth  state  in  the  Union  in  the  production 
of  building  stone;  1,700  persons  were  employed  in  the  quarries, 
and  8,500,000  cubic  feet  of  stone  were  taken  out.  The  annual 
production  has  more  than  doubled  since  that  time. 

5.  Kaolin  and  glass  sand  are  found  in  large  quantities  in 
several  counties  and  are  profitably  mined.  These  industries 
are  but  slightly  developed,  and  will  be  of  much  importance 
hereafter,  as  the  deposits  are  of  the  best  quality.  Good  clay  is 
abundant,  and  brick  and  tile  making  are  extensive  industries 
throughout  the  state.  Oilstone  and  shoemaker's  sandstone  are 
profitably  mined  in  Orange  County.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  large 
quantities  in  the  coal  measures,  but  can  be  profitably  mined  at 
only  a  few  places. 

6.  Petroleum  has  been  found  in  several  locali-  r 
ties,  and  there  are  now  flowing  wells  in  the  state, 
but  their  permanence  is  not  assured. 

Population. — In  1880  the  population  of  Indiana 
was  1,978,301.  Of  these  1,938,978  were  white  and 
39,228  colored;  144,178  were  foreign  born,  of  whom 
80,756  were  born  in  the  German  Empire  and  40,508 
in  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land; 635,080  were  engaged  in  occupations,  includ- 
ing 331,240  in  agriculture,  110,127  in  manufactures, 
mechanical  and  mining  pursuits,  and  56,432  in  trade 
and  transportation. 

Of  the  total  population  over  ten  years  of  age, 
less  than  five  per  cent  were  unable  to  read  and 
seven  and  one-half  per  cent  were  unable  to  write. 

Agriculture. — The  most  important  industry  of 
Indiana  is  agriculture.  Of  the  22,982,400  acres  in 
the  state,  20,420,983  are  in  farms,  and  13,933,938 
are  under  cultivation.  In  1880  the  farm  product 
was  valued  at  $114,707,082,  and  the  value  of  live 
stock  on  farms  was  $71,068,758.  A  State  Board  of 
Agriculture  is  established  by  law  and  much  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  improvement  of  agriculture 


The  leading  vegetable  products  in  the  order 
of  their  value,  are  corn,  wheat,  hay  and  oats. 

Manufactures. —Next  in  importance  is  manu- 
facture, in  which  one-ninth  of  the  people  are  era- 
ployed.  In  1880,  $100,262,917  of  raw  materials 
were  consumed  and  goods  of  the  value  of  $148,- 
006,411  were  produced.  The  value  added  by 
manufacture  is  the  difference  between  the  two 
sums.  Owing  to  the  use  of  natural  gas  the  manu- 
facturing interests  are  increasing  with  great  ra- 
pidity. The  manufactures  whose  product  was 
over  $4,000,000  in  1880  were  as  follows: 

Raw  Materials  Used.  Products. 

Flour  and  grist  mills $26,104,637  $29,591,397 

Meatpacking 13,645,927  15,209^204 

Saw  mills 9,627,097  14,260,830 

Foundries  and  ironwork 7,622,070  12,072,521 

Agricultural  implements 2,182,137  4,460,408 

Liquors 3,103.446  5,018,797 

Commerce.^ — Nearly  one-tenth  of  the  people  in  occupations 
are  engaged  in  commerce  and  transportation.  Commerce  is 
chiefly  domestic,  but  exportation  and  importation  are  steadily 
growing  in  extent.  The  only  water  transportation  worthy  of 
mention  is  by  Lake  Michigan,  the  Ohio  Eiver  and  the  Wabash 
below  Terre  Haute.  The  canals  in  the  state  are  practically 
abandoned.  The  railroads  furnish  the  principal  means  of 
transportation.  There  are  5,825  miles  of  railroad  within  the 
state  exclusive  of  side  and  double  track. 

Government. — 1.  The  government  of  Indiana  is,  like  those 
of  other  states,  republican.  It  is  divided  into  three  depart- 
ments, the  executive,  the  legislative  and  the  judicial. 

2.     At  the  head  of  the  executive  department  are  a  Governor 


QIDIANA  STATE  NOBMAL  SCHOOL,  TEBEE  UAUTX. 


THE  STATE  OP  INDIANA. 


LIBRARY  OF  INDIANA   UNIVERSITY,  BLOOM 


and  Lieatenant  Governor,  elected  by  the  people  for  a  term  of 
four  years.  The  Lieutenant  Governor  is  president  of  the  Senate. 
The  more  important  of  the  other  executive  officers  are  the 
Treasurer,  Secretary, 
Auditor,  Attorney  Gen- 
eral, Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction, 
Statistician,  and  Geolo- 
gist. 

3.  The  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  a 
General  Assembly  com- 
posed of  two  houses,  a 
Senate  of  50  members 
elected  for  four  years 
and  a  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  100  mem- 
bers elected  for  two 
years.  The  Governor 
may  veto  a  bill  but  it 
may  be  passed  again 
over  his  veto  by  a  ma- 
jority of  the  General 
Assembly. 

4.  The  supreme  ju- 
dicial power  is  vested 
in  a  Supreme  Court  of 
five  judges.  It  is  chief- 
ly occupied  in  deciding  appeals  from  lower  courts.  There  are 
54  Circuit  Courts  which  hold  sessions  in  each  of  the  several 
counties  during  the  year.  They  decide  the  mass  of  the  civil  and 
criminal  cases.  There  are  also  five  Superior  Courts  in 
the  larger  counties  and  a  special  Criminal  Court  in 
Marion  County.  The  minor  cases  are  decided  by 
justices  of  the  peace,  of  whom  there  is  one  in 
each  township,  and  more  if  business  requires 

6.     As  a  member  of  the  United  States, 
Indiana  is  represented  in  Congress  by  two 
senators  and  thirteen  representatives.    The 
state  has,  therefore,  fifteen  votes  in  the 
choice  of  the  President  and  Vice  President 
by  the  electoral  college.      In  the  judicial 
system  of  the  United  States  Indiana  forms 
a  district,  and,  with  Illinois  and  Wisconsin, 
forms  the  Seventh  Judicial  Circuit. 

Local  Government. — The  state  is  divided 
into  92  counties  for  purposes  of  local  government. 
Each  county  has  a  sheriff,  clerk,  treasurer,  record- 
er, auditor  and  board  of  county  commissioners. 
For  convenience  each  county  is  divided  into  town- 
ships. Each  of  these  has  a  township  trustee  and 
an  assessor  of  taxes.  There  are  1,012  townships 
in  the  state.  Cities  and  towns  have  independ- 
ent control  of  their  local  affairs. 

Benevolent  Institutions. — The  state  main- 
tains four  hospitals  for  the  insane,  at  Indianapolis, 
Eichmond,  Logansport  and  Evansville;  one  for 
the  blind  and  one  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  at  In- 
dianapolis; a  school  for  feeble  minded  youth  at 
Fort  "Wayne,  and  a  home  for  soldiers'  and  sailors' 
orphans  at  Knightstown,  at  an  expense  of  about  $700,000  an- 
nually. Each  county  has  a  home  for  indigent  and  helpless 
people.    The  larger  cities  have  public  hospitals,  and  numerous 


hospitals  and  benevolent  institutions  are  maintained  by  private 
support. 

Penal  Institutions. — The  state  has  two  penitentiaries  for 

men,  at  Michigan  City 
and  Jeffersonville;  are- 
form  school  for  boys  at 
Plainfield,  and  a  reform- 
atory for  women  and 
girls,  at  Indianapolis. 

Education. — 1.  The 
school  system  of  the 
state  of  Indiana  is  one 
of  the  best  in  the  world. 
There  is  a  permanent 
school  fund  of  $9,600,- 
000,  of  which  only  the  in- 
terest is  used  for  school 
expenses.  This  is  held 
by  the  counties  and  loan- 
ed at  interest  at  the  rate 
of  six  per  cent.  Only 
three  states  in  the  Un- 
ion have  larger  funds. 
The  annual  expenditure 
for  public  schools  is 
about  $5,000,000,  of 
which  $4,000,000  is  rais- 
ed by  taxation  and  the 
remainder  from  interest  on  the  permanent  fund,  fines,  liquor 
licenses,  etc.  The  value  of  the  school  property  in  the  state  is 
about  $15,000,000.  The  number  of  school  children  in  the  state 
is  about  750,000,  and  two-thirds  of  them  are  enrolled  in 
the  common  schools. 

2.    The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  is 
at  the  head  of  the  school  system.    He  has  gen- 
eral supervision  of  all  school  matters  and  re- 
ports every  second  year  in  regard  to  them. 
3.     The  Superintendent,  the  Governor, 
the  presidents  of  the  State  University, 
Purdue  University,  State  Normal  School, 
and  the  superintendents  of  public  schools  of 
the  three  principal  cities  of  the  state,  con- 
stitute a  State  Board  of  Education.     It  has 
jurisdiction  over  the  examining  and  licensing 
of  teachers,  commissioning  high  schools,  etc. 

4.  The  immediate  supervision  of  school 
matters  is  by  the  township  trustees,  who  employ 
teachers,  locate  school  houses,  purchase  supplies, 
etc.  In  each  county  the  trustees, 
together  with  a  county  superintend- 
ent of  schools  elected  by  them,  and 
the  presidents  of  school  boards  of  in- 
corporated cities  and  towns,  consti- 
tute a  County  Board  of  Education, 
which  has  special  charge  of  courses 
of  study  and  township  libraries.  In- 
corporated cities  and  towns  have 
independent  control  of  their  schools. 
5.  The  county  superintendents 
have  general  supervision  of  the 
schools,  examine  and  license  teachers,  and  report  annually  to  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

6.    The  taxpayers  of  each  school  district  are  empowered  to 


TWO  OF   MAIN  BUILDINGS,   PURDUE  UNIVERSITY,  LAFAYETTE. 


THE  STATE  OP  INDIANA. 


VIEW  OF  THE  OHIO  EIVER,  EVANSVII.LE. 


meet  and  elect  a  director,  who  takes  charge  of  the  school  house 
and  property,  excludes  refractory  pupils  from  school,  and  makes 
necessary  repairs  under  the  direction  of  the  township  trustee. 

7.  The  efficiency  of  the  system  is  much  promoted  by  teach- 
ers' institutes  and  associations,  and  teachers'  and  pupils'  reading 
circles,  the  former  compulsory,  the  latter  voluntary.  Allowance 
is  made  to  teachers  for  attendance  on  the  township  institutes. 

8.  The  state  in  addition  to  the  common  schools  maintains 
three  institutions  for  higher  learning;  a  State  University  at 
Bloomington,  Purdue  University  (a  school  of  technology)  at  La- 
fayette, and  a  State  Normal  School  at  Terre  Haute.  Besides 
these  there  are  seventeen  colleges  and  universities,  nine  normal 
schools,  a  polytechnic  institute,  and  numerous  seminaries  and 
schools  maintained  at  private  expense. 

History. — 1.  The  first  white  man  who  explored  Indiana 
was  Eobert  Cavalier,  commonly  known  by  his  title,  Sieur  de  la 
Salle,  or  simply  La  Salle.  He  passed  down  the  Ohio  in  1670, 
and  in  1682-3,  explored  the  northern  part  of  the  state. 

2.  La  Salle  induced  all  of  the  Indians  in  Indiana  to  remove 
to  Illinois,  and  this  state  remained  uninhabited  until  1700,  when 
the  Indians  began  moving  east,  settling  principally  on  the 
Maumee  and  Wabash  rivers.  They  all  belonged  to  the  Miami 
Nation,  and  were  known  as  Miamis,  Kickapoos,  Weas,  or  Ouia- 
tanons  and  Piankeshaws.  Fifty  years  later  the  Delawares 
and  Shawnees,  driven  from  the  East,  began  settling  in  Central 
Indiana. 

3.  The  French  established  three  posts  in  Indiana,  one  called 
Port  Miamis,  at  the  site  of  Fort  Wayne;  one  in  1720,  called  Post 
Ouiatanon,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Wabash,  opposite  the  mouth 
of  Wea  Creek,  a  short  distance  below  Lafayette;  and  one  in  1727, 
called  Post  Vincennes,  where  Vincennes  now  stands.  They  con- 
trolled the  country  until  1763,  then  surrendered  it  to  the  English. 

4.  The  English  remained  in  possession  until  1779,  when  it 
was  conquered  by  General  George  Eogers  Clarke,  for  the  United 
States,  and  passed  under  the  immediate  control  of  Virginia.  In 
1784  Virginia  surrendered  her  claims  to  the  Union,  and  three 
years  later  a  government  was  established  for  the  territory  north- 
west of  the  Ohio  Kiver  by  the  celebrated  ordinance  of  1787. 


5.  In  1800  all  the  northwest  territory  west  of  a  line  drawn 
north  from  the  mouth  of  the  Big  Miami  Eiver  was  made  Indiana 
Territory.  In  1805  Michigan  Territory  was  created,  and  in  1809 
Illinois  Territory,  leaving  to  Indiana  Territory  about  the  pres- 
ent dimensions  of  the  state.  In  1811,  the  Indians  having  become 
hostile.  General  William  Henry  Harrison,  the  first  Governor 
of  Indiana  Territory,  marched  against  them  and  defeated  their 
forces  under  the  Prophet,  at  Tippecanoe,  on  November  7th. 

6.  In  1816  Indiana  adopted  her  first  constitution  and  was 
admitted  as  a  state.  In  1851  a  new  constitution  was  adopted 
and  is  now  in  force.  The  population  of  Indiana  Territory  in 
1800  was  5,641,  about  2,500  of  whom  lived  within  the  present 
limits  of  the  state.  In  1816  the  population  of  the  state  was 
65,000.  From  1800  to  1813  Vincennes  was  the  capital;  fiom 
1813  to  1825,  Corydon;  and  since  1825,  Indianapolis. 

Cities  and  Towns. — Indianapolis,  the  capital,  is  situated 
hear  the  center  of  the  state,  on  the  West  Fork  of  White  River. 
It  has  a  population  of  about  100,000,  and  is  one  of  the  great- 
est railroad  centers  in  the  world.  It  has  extensive  manufac- 
turing and  commercial  interests.  The  remaining  cities  and  towns 
having  a  population  of  10,000  or  more  in  1880  were  as  follows: 


Evansville 29,280 

Fort  Wayne 26,880 

Terre  Haute 26,042 

New  Albany 16,423 


Lafayette 14,860 

South  Bend ; 13,280 

Richmond 12,74iJ 

Logansport 11,1S8 


Nearly  all  the  cities  of  Indiana  have  grown  rapidly  since 
1880  and  increased  their  manufacturing  and  commercial  inter- 
ests. 

MAP  QUESTIONS. 

In  what  part  of  the  Onited  States  is  Indiana  situated  T  What  state  bounds  it  on  the  north  ? 
On  the  east?  On  the  south?  On  the  west?  Into  which  of  the  great  drainage  systems  of  the 
continent  do  its  waters  flow?    Why?    What  natural  boundaries  has  Indiana? 

From  the  map,  what  part  of  Indiana  would  you  suppose  to  lie  the  highest?  What  lowest? 
Why?  What  stream  flows  into  the  Ohio  at  the  southeastern  corner  of  Indiana?  What  at  the 
southwestern?  Into  what  stream  does  the  Whitewater  River  flow?  Name  the  streams  on  which 
the  following  cities  and  towns  are  situated,  and  tell  into  what  each  stream  flows:  Indianapolis, 
JeffersonTillc,  Richmond,  Terro  Haute,  Evansville,  Lafayette,  Fort  Wayne,  New  Albany.  Could 
you  go  by  water  from  Michigan  City  to  Evansville?    How? 

What  is  the  capital  of  Indiana?  In  what  part  of  the  state  Is  it  situated?  Name  five  counties 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  state  and  the  county  feats.    Five  in  the  southern  part. 

In  what  county  do  you  live?  In  what  part  of  the  state  is  it?  What  counties  bound  it? 
What  is  the  county  seat?  How  many  townstiips  are  there  in  your  county?  Namethem.  What 
streams  flow  through  your  county  7    What  railroads  pass  through  it? 


This  book  15  <iVf^X«to  which  renewed. 
Kenewed^S^^-subieCto— ..erecaU. 


(B132l8l0)476 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


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INDIANA  EDUCATIONAL  SERIES. 


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PRICES  OF  BOOKS  AS  FIXED  BY  LAW. 


First  Reader.    . 
Second  Reader, 


•        • 


1 0  Cents. 


15 


Third  Reader, 25 

Fourth  Reader, 30 

Fifth  Reader, 40 

Elementary  Arithmetic,     ....  35 

Complete  Arithmetic, 45 

Elementary  Geography,    ....  30 

Complete  Geography, 75 


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ANY  DEVIATION  FROM  THESE  PRICES  SHOl>LD  BE  IMMEDUTFLY  REPORTED  TO 

INDIANA  SCHOOL  BOOK  COMPANY, 

INDIANAPOLIS,    IND. 


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